41. Land And Spirituality In Africa In February 1998, some indigenous peoples participants who had been at the Gabarone While land is a birthright of every African indigenous person, http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/jpc/echoes-16-05.html

The Earth as Mother Land and Spirituality in Africa Articles in this series: Land: Breaking bonds and cementing ties by Edmore Mufema Spirituality, land and land reform in South Africa ... Rev. Rupert Hambira In 1996, Indigenous People met during the Conference on World Mission and Evangelism held in Salvador Bahia Brazil. One year later, the World Council of Churches’ Indigenous Peoples’ Programme (WCC/IPP) in cooperation with the Botswana Christian Council also held a workshop under the theme "Spirituality, Land and the Role of the Churches in the Struggle for the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights" in Gabarone. From that meeting came a call to continue building spiritual,cultural and political identities within the churches in the countries where Indigenous Peoples are located. The areas of critical concern identified were land, protection of rights under international law, preservation/promotion of culture, decision making processes, advocacy, spirituality and networking. In February 1998, some Indigenous Peoples participants who had been at the Gabarone workshop and other representatives from Africa, attended a consultation on "Land and Spirituality" in Karasjok, Norway. Here the world-wide Indigenous Peoples community exchanged ways in which their spiritualities and lands were threatened. From this sharing, ideas of cooperation and responsibilities were discussed. The Indigenous meeting and the statement of Karasjok became a strong challenge to convene in Harare to identify the critical issues affecting African Indigenous Peoples in general. Before the WCC’s eighth Assembly in Harare, "Land and Spirituality: The African Context" was the theme chosen for the workshop the same theme used in Karasjok, Norway. It showed the connectedness between the spiritualities of the Indigenous Peoples and the land on which they originated.

42. The Tutsis | The “Jews” Of Africa | Economist.com He dressed up the invasion as an indigenous revolt, and installed at its helm People in the Great Lakes region sometimes speak of “the tutsi question”, http://www.economist.com/printedition/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=3113203

43. Beyond Tribalism: Seeking A New Cultural Identity For East Africa to focus on traditional lifestyles of indigenous peoples of East africa. Answers to the basic question of which East african peoples appear in http://www.theartroom-sf.com/beyond tribalism.htm

Beyond Tribalism: Seeking a New Cultural Identity for East Africa An analysis and interview with artist James Kitamirike exploring cultural and personal elements within several of his paintings. Presumptions of tradition The subject matter chosen by artist James Kitamirike An understanding of the complex mosaic of prevailing cultures throughout East Africa reveals that cultural elements depicted in Kitamirike’s works converge in a completely new way. Instead of straight-forward representation, Kitamirike’s unique "cultural impressions" introduced within these works assemble a new vision for East Africa’s cultural legacy. Beyond representation: a question of cultural identity Examples of culture swapping Those familiar with predominant indigenous groups throughout the region are struck by the apparent paradox of "Beauty". Often with alarm, questions: "Where is this woman from? There is no tribe which dresses exactly like that, wears such jewelry, and appears this way! Her jewelry is from Kenya, her clothes are from Mali, and her features perhaps Ethiopian? It’s a beautiful image, yes, but it’s incorrect." It isn’t long before more "incorrect" cultural combinations are discovered within Kitamirike’s works. "

44. California Wild Fall 1999 - Counterpoints In Science Its inhabitants developed africa’s only indigenous written script and erectedmassive The tutsi comprise 12 to 15 percent of the population of Rwanda, http://www.calacademy.org/calwild/1999fall/stories/counterpoints.html

The Magazine of the CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CURRENT ISSUE SUBSCRIBE ... CALIFORNIA WILD Counterpoints in Science Images of Africa Jerold M. Lowenstein As I write these words, I’m getting ready for my ninth trip to Africa, this time to Namibia. Meanwhile, the Academy is preparing to show a new exhibit on Africa. Like most of us, I have conflicting images of this “dark continent” that gave birth to humanity five million years ago, and that spawned our own species, Homo sapiens , about 140,000 years ago. Though our ancestors came from Africa originally, the motherland appeared so remote and mysterious to Europeans in recent centuries that it had to be “discovered” and “explored” all over again, its rivers traced to their sources, its peoples described and subdued. The writer Joseph Conrad summed up his view of Africa in his title, Heart of Darkness Western images of Africa have tended toward two extremes: an idyllic Eden where people and animals lived in a “natural” state until civilization and its discontents intruded and spoiled everything; or a wild place of savage bloodthirstiness and ignorance, bereft of the advantages of Western law, technology, and religion. To me, the great paradox of Africa is that it seems to “have it all”—spectacular geography (glacier-topped mountains, great river valleys, rain forests, vast deserts), wonderful climate, a limitless treasure-chest of diamonds and gold, great diversity of plants and animals and most ancient history of life, a three-million-year head start in human evolution over any other continent, with ancient cities and societies. Yet today Africa has very little to show for these apparent advantages. The people are mostly impoverished, the governments mostly corrupt and undemocratic. Civil wars are commonplace.

45. Africa Kushite peoples from the Ethiopian highlands came to dominate the indigenousBantu. Other Kushites are believed to be ancestors of the tutsi peoples of http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/africa3a.html

Africa Some 5 million years ago a type of hominid, a close evolutionary ancestor of present-day humans, inhabited southern and eastern Africa. More than 1.5 million years ago this toolmaking hominid developed into the more advanced forms Homo habilis and Homo erectus. The earliest true human being in Africa, Homo sapiens, dates from more than 200,000 years ago. A hunter-gatherer capable of making crude stone tools, Homo sapiens banded together with others to form nomadic groups; eventually these nomadic San peoples spread throughout the African continent. Distinct races date from approximately 10,000 BC. Gradually a growing Negroid population, which had mastered animal domestication and agriculture, forced the San groups into the less hospitable areas. In the 1st century AD the Bantu, one group of this dominant people, began a migration that lasted some 2000 years, settling most of central and southern Africa. Negroid societies typically depended on subsistence agriculture or, in the savannas, pastoral pursuits. Political organization was normally local, although large kingdoms would later develop in western and central Africa. see Aksum, Kingdom of

46. African Culture - Society On The Internet Indilinga African Journal of indigenous Knowledge Systems (Pietermaritzburg, Topics include Zambia, Hutu, tutsi, Zulu identity, the Yoruba people. http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/culture.html

Countries Topics Search the Africa Pages Suggest a Site ... Topics: Culture and Society See also: Country Pages Adire African Textiles - Duncan Clarke History, background, and photographs of adire, adinkra, kente, bogolan, Yoruba aso-oke, akwete, ewe, kuba, and nupe textiles. The symbolism of images is often provided. One can purchase textiles as well. Clarke's Ph.D. dissertation (School of Oriental and African Studies) is on Yoruba men's weaving. Based in London. http://www.adire.clara.net Africa e Mediterraneo (Roma : Istituto sindacale per la cooperazione allo sviluppo) In Italian. A quarterly magazine about African culture and society. Has the table of contents. Topics covered: literature and theatre, music and dance, visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography), cinema, immigration. Owned by Lai-momo, a non-profit co-operative. Contact: redazione@africaemediterraneo.it [KF] http://www.africaemediterraneo.it Africa: One Continent. Many Worlds Extensive site for the traveling art exhibit from the Field Museum, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County

47. Voices: Special Forum On Personal Experiences Of Racism (WCAR) The World Conference Against Racism held in Durban, South africa from 27th devastating effects on indigenous peoples and the unforgettable story of a 15 http://www.csvr.org.za/articles/artwcar.htm

Voices: Special Forum on Personal Experiences of Racism and Racial Discrimination - A Report Part of the United Nations World Conference Against Racism Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance Convenors Ambassador Nozipho January-Bardill Member, UN Commitee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Gay J. McDougall Member, UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination N. Barney Pityana Chair, South African Human Rights Commission The World Conference Against Racism held in Durban, South Africa from 27th August to the 7th September was an important and unique opportunity for the global community to develop practical and effective strategies to combat contemporary forms and manifestations of racism. In order to achieve its objectives, the World Conference needed to make visible those individuals, groups and communities who have been confronted and harmed by racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance. An essential aspect of the World Conference Against Racism had to be to amplify the voices of the victims. Indeed, one of the major themes on the conference agenda, as decided by governments during the first Preparatory Committee, was the session for "victims of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance". But, placing the topic on the official agenda, however, could only partially achieve the goal of placing the victims at the center of the World Conference proceedings. Official agenda items were to be discussed in a highly formal and structured forum, in which governments would be the principal actors. Likewise, the NGO Forum, while serving a number of other critical purposes, was never seen as providing an appropriate venue in which to give due recognition to the centrality of the experiences of the victims.

48. 'New Right', Neo-pagans, Ecology And Indigenous People In the case of Rwanda, for example, the categories of Hutu and tutsi And indigenous peoples themselves, how do they look upon the New Rightist embrace? http://www.stelling.nl/simpos/new_right.htm

'The Right to be Different' The alarming interest of the "New Right" in indigenous peoples Nederlandse versie A well-known expression of indigenous peoples is: "The Earth does not belong to us, we belong to the Earth." Man is only a small part of Creation, and he should not be its ruler. This view communicates a respectful, humble attitude towards nature. But with some evil will, this expression of relatedness with all that lives can easily be associated with dangerous "Blut und Boden"-thinking. In this regard, it could be instructive to look back in history to see how feelings of connection to nature have been misused in pre-Second World War Germany. Today, again, radical-rightist groups are standing up which pride themselves in saying that their conduct is being guided by "the laws of nature". Next to that, they claim to be big proponents of cultural self-determination, even - or expressly - for indigenous peoples. The National-Socialists promoted a return to a more simple, healthier and natural lifestyle, and introduced the concept of a "Nordic peasantry" organically tied to the earth. Part of that became a scientifically grounded Volksreligion, which proclaimed the sacredness of nature, and which celebrated man's immanent unity with the "mysteries of the blood". It was Hitler himself who declared that men "owe their higher existence ... to the knowledge and ruthless application of nature's stern and rigid laws." One Nazi author put it this way: "man is a link in the chain of living nature just as any other organism." This "religion of nature", the roots of which go back to German Romanticism and Idealism, was a core element of National Socialist ideology. An ideology which was based on anti-modern sentiments, but nevertheless formed the base for building a technologically ultra-modern, extreme nationalist and genocidal state.

49. Rwanda's Secret War U. S. -backed Destabilization Of Central Africa By Keith Har Central africa s Ongoing Genocide. Paul Kagame S tutsiled Rwandan Patriotic of indigenous Anuak people in southeastern Ethiopia (see the December 12, http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Africa/Rwanda_Secret_War.html

Rwanda's Secret War U. S. -backed destabilization of Central Africa by keith harmon snow Z magazine, February 2005 0n November 26, 2004, television stations in Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), began broadcasting alerts that a Rwandan invasion was underway. This followed days of repeated threats by President Paul Kagame to attack Hum rebels based in the eastern DRC. Belgian and U.S. military sources in Kinshasa said that at least five battalions (1,500-3,000 troops) had penetrated the provinces of North and South Kivu from 5 different points. "This is a sizeable advance force for the Rwandan army," said one military source in Kinshasa. With Rwanda's government continuing to deny their invasion, some 6,000 Rwandan troops had reportedly penetrated eastern DRC by December 4, making this tiny Rwanda's third major invasion of its huge neighbor to the west. According to the DRC government, troops of the Armed Forces for the Democratic Republic of Congo (FARDC) had clashed with Rwandan Defense Forces (RDF) at numerous locations by early December. The Monitor newspaper in Uganda reported December 6 that RDF troops passing illegally through Ugandan frontier areas had also clashed with Ugandan soldiers. The Monitor reported thousands of Congolese refugees fleeing into Uganda. According to IRIN, news network of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, thousands of Congolese civilians were fleeing North Kivu province as of December 6, with civilians claiming executions and massacres as RDF troops burned and looted everything in their path. NGO staff in the region are bracing for the flood of tens of thousands of internally displaced persons.

50. Sociology 337-Ethnic Conflict < Classes < Guides < Resources < DePauw University tutsi (African People) Use broad concept terms as your primary element, such asBilingualism indigenous peoples Intergroup Relations http://www.depauw.edu/library/resources/guides/SOC337-Ethnic Conflict.htm

DePauw University Libraries Research Guide Sociology 337 - Ethnic Conflict Professor Tom Hall This guide suggests resources and strategies for research on ethnic conflict, whether it be between states, between states and nonstate societies, between ethnic groups, etc. Overview Sources Fact Sources Finding Sources Style Guides Overview Sources Get an overview of your topic Use general and subject specific encyclopedias, handbooks, etc. to find: Bibliographies leading you to other information Try these or ask a librarian for additional suggestions: Africans South of the Sahara Ref GN645 .M67 1991 Aggression and Conflict Ref HM 136.L46 1994 Border and Territorial Disputes Ref D 843.B623 1987 Course of Mexican History Ref F1226 .M54 1995 Encyclopedia of Africa Ref DT351 .E53 1997 Encyclopedia of African Peoples Ref DT15 .E53 2000 Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education Ref LC3707 .E53 1998 Encyclopedia of Conflict Resolution Ref. HM136 .B783 1997 Encyclopedia of European Social History Ref HN373 .E63 2001

51. Socialism Today - Africa, The New Colonies Last year, when 14 million people in southern africa were at risk of starvation, put down any resistance from workers, peasants and indigenous peoples. http://www.socialismtoday.org/78/africa.html

Socialism Today Socialist Party magazine Home Issue 78 About Us ... Search Africa: the new colonies Over recent years, the US regime has renewed its interest in Africa. Impetus was added after the al-Qa’ida attacks of 11 September 2001. ‘National security’ became interwoven with the ‘war on terror’, alternatives to Middle East oil a priority. Trade deals and troop deployments followed. MANNY THAIN reports. IN FIVE DAYS in June, George W Bush visited five sub-Saharan African states: Senegal, South Africa, Botswana, Uganda and Nigeria. His mission was to promote ‘compassionate capitalism’ – the human face of a system which condemns half the world’s people to destitution. He promised $15 billion over five years to fight HIV/Aids. He used press conferences and meetings to talk about trade deals. Bush lectured audiences on ‘freedom’, ‘democracy’ and the ‘war on terror’. Bush’s promises – not a cent has yet been paid over – were welcomed by some aid agencies. Bob Geldof, of the Band Aid charity, naively lavished praise on the US president. But Bush’s safari was no altruistic adventure. It was conducted in the interests of US capitalism. The Republican Party hoped it would be good PR, impacting positively on the votes of African-Americans in next year’s presidential election. That was the reason Bush started his tour on Gorée Island, where slaves were crammed onto ships destined for the US. His speech was aimed directly at US voters: "The racial bigotry fed by slavery did not end with slavery or with segregation. And many of the issues that still trouble America have roots in the bitter experience of other times. But however long the journey, our destination is set: liberty and justice for all". (International Herald Tribune, 9 July)

52. Community In Contention: Angles Of Approach Ethnic tutsi are in exile in Ugandan refugee camps, and yet sufficiently International definitions of indigenous peoples most notably provided by the http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/RockyCommun/angles.html

Rockefeller Humanities Fellowships : Institute of International Studies; University of California Berkeley Community in Contention: Culture of Crisis, Exile, and Democracy Rockefeller Foundation Humanities Fellowships Page 4 of 5 Angles of Approach The strength of the community as a keyword or building block for this project, namely its inclusiveness and its reach across fields and professions, is also of course a source of its weakness. In order not to founder on the reefs of replication or scale, Community in Contention will focus on three themes which confer the advantage of being both less well understood for example community reconstruction and cultures of tolerance rather than community deconstruction and violence and of providing a ground on which differing forms of intellectual activity, scholarship in and outside of the academe, and activist-practitioners can meet. Insofar as one major thread which runs across the themes is the linking of humanities with social science policy and practitioners, Community in Contention builds upon two existing programs with pronounced emphases on practice: the Human Rights Center's concern with the rebuilding of communities devastated by human rights violations, and the

53. Talking About "Tribe" Tribe is used for Hutu and tutsi in the central African countries of While there are many indigenous Zambian words which translate into nation, people, http://www.africaaction.org/bp/ethall.htm

Top: Africa Policy Home Page Up: Table of Contents Talking about "Tribe" Moving from Stereotypes to Analysis Background Paper Published November, 1997 Last updated November, 1997 For most people in Western countries, Africa immediately calls up the word "tribe." The idea of tribe is ingrained, powerful, and expected. Few readers question a news story describing an African individual as a tribesman or tribeswoman, or the depiction of an African's motives as tribal. Many Africans themselves use the word "tribe" when speaking or writing in English about community, ethnicity or identity in African states. Yet today most scholars who study African states and societiesboth African and non-Africanagree that the idea of tribe promotes misleading stereotypes. The term "tribe" has no consistent meaning. It carries misleading historical and cultural assumptions. It blocks accurate views of African realities. At best, any interpretation of African events that relies on the idea of tribe contributes no understanding of specific issues in specific countries. At worst, it perpetuates the idea that African identities and conflicts are in some way more "primitive" than those in other parts of the world. Such misunderstanding may lead to disastrously inappropriate policies. In this paper we argue that anyone concerned with truth and accuracy should avoid the term "tribe" in characterizing African ethnic groups or cultures. This is not a matter of political correctness. Nor is it an attempt to deny that cultural identities throughout Africa are powerful, significant and sometimes linked to deadly conflicts. It is simply to say that using the term "tribe" does not contribute to understanding these identities or the conflicts sometimes tied to them. There are, moreover, many less loaded and more helpful alternative words to use. Depending on context, people, ethnic group, nationality, community, village, chiefdom, or kin-group might be appropriate. Whatever the term one uses, it is essential to understand that identities in Africa are as diverse, ambiguous, complex, modern, and changing as anywhere else in the world.

54. Zaire: Nzongola Article If so, they would, as other indigenous people all over africa, For the Tutsiare not Hamites. They are a Bantu people who share a common Bantu culture http://www.africaaction.org/docs96/zair9612.nzo.htm

Home About Us Archives Africa Policy E-Journal Zaire: Nzongola Article Programs Baraza Annual Reports Contact Us ... Archives Africa Policy E-Journal by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic by Date and by Topic Africa Policy E-Journal Any links to other sites in this file from 1996 are not clickable, given the difficulty in maintaining up-to-date links in old files. However, we hope they may still provide leads for your research. The Africa Policy E-Journal is a free information service provided by Africa Action, including both original commentary and reposted documents. Africa Action provides this information and analysis in order to promote U.S. and international policies toward Africa that advance economic, political and social justice and the full spectrum of human rights. Documents previously distributed in the e-journal are available on the Africa Action website: http://www.africaaction.org

55. US In Africa: Partnership Or Pillage? | MADRE: An International Women's Human Ri Today, half of africa s population (300 million people) earn less than $1 a day Scapegoating the tutsi helped divert growing opposition to IMF reforms. http://www.madre.org/articles/afr/usinafrica.html

@import "/common/madre2.css"; Home About Programs Articles ... Print Text size: A A A Articles by Theme Armed Conflict and Forced Displacement Economic Justice and Community Development Food Security and Sustainable Development Human Rights Advocacy ... Youth Articles by Region Africa Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East Inter-Regional ... Get emails with the latest news and analysis from MADRE Search the MADRE site! © Laura Flanders US in Africa: Partnership or Pillage? By Yifat Susskind Spring 2000 Related Materials Demanding Justice: Rape and Reconciliation in Rwanda What's So Liberal About Neoliberalism? Country Overview: Kenya Country Overview: Rwanda Trade Not Aid The US Commerce Department has labeled Africa "the last frontier for American business." But to most Africans, Clinton's trade policy is simply the latest maneuver in a long history of exploitation by the global North (rich, industrialized countries led by the US). This history encompasses the slave trade, colonialism, neo-colonialism (economic domination even after political independence), and now, a kind of re-colonization in the form of neo-liberal policies like SAPs and "free," or unregulated trade. In the 1950's, African independence movements won some control over national resources and basic rights like healthcare, housing and jobs. But African economies remained dominated by Northern governments and banks whose reckless lending policies generated a massive debt that has kept African countries vulnerable to Northern policy demands and dependent on even more loans to make payments. Some of us are familiar with the terrible burden that debt has placed on poor and working people in Latin America, where the debt is a full 38% of the region's Gross Domestic Product (the total value of goods and services produced within a year). In Africa that figure is 106%.

56. Burundi Section Causes And Background Of Displacement Sub A Hutu could rise economically and socially and become a tutsi . a group ofindigenous people found across central africa, have asked the governments http://www.db.idpproject.org/Sites/IdpProjectDb/idpSurvey.nsf/wViewCountries/E2C

www.idpproject.org Burundi Section : Causes and Background of Displacement Sub-section : Conflict and displacement: background and development Burundi menu List of sources Maps Ethnic background and pre-colonial times Total population: 7.1 million Composite population comprising Hutu (85%), Tutsi (14%) and Batwa (1%)(colonial census) Numerous interrelations between the ethnic groups (marriage, language, common monarchy) The Batwa are most likely the most ancient ethnic group in Burundi but they are marginalized in Burundi society - POPULATION: 7.1 million, of which around 85 percent are Hutu and 14 percent Tutsi. The remaining one percent of the population are pygmies called Twas. One of the most densely populated African countries. - CAPITAL: Bujumbura (population 300,000) - LANGUAGES: Kirundi (national), French (administrative), Swahili (local) "La situation de la minorité twa mérite une attention particulière que malheureusement elle ne reçoit pas toujours. Les Twas sont sans doute le noyau le plus ancien de la population burundaise, comme dans d'autres pays des Grands Lacs; ils constituent aujourd'hui environ 1 % de la population. Cette minorité est la grande absente de tous les débats et recherche de solutions au Burundi alors qu'elle compte, proportionnellement autant de victimes en son sein en raison de la généralisation du conflit. Les Twas semblent être tenus à l'écart du développement économique, social et culturel alors qu'il leur est de plus en plus difficile de se livrer à leurs activités traditionnelles (poterie pour les femmes et chasse pour les hommes). " (CHR 19 March 2001, para. 100)

57. Misconceptions Today We must take notice of the ability of these indigenous people to create new In Rwanda and Burundi, The Hutu and tutsi have been locked in conflict. http://www.princetonol.com/groups/iad/lessons/middle/misconc.htm

TODAY'S MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT AFRICA Incredible @rt Dept ART HOME Program Goals Lesson Plans ... Test Your Knowledge [ Misconceptions Today ] Art of Mali Songhai Empire Senufo Ancestor Dogon Ancestor ... Early History of Africa Background information on Africa Africa . Third Edition. Indiana: Indiana University Press. Martin and O'Meara (1995) dispel any misconceptions one might have about Africa today. They present the reader with an objective perspective on the problems facing Africans today: the diversity, the conflicts, and the changesall a result of Western interference. Africa, more that three times the size of the United States, includes fifty- three very diverse countries and a population of about 700 million people. Africans are divided not only by boundaries, which did not exist prior to colonization, but also by ethnic identities, class distinctions, urban and rural experiences, geographic barriers, and vast distances. Population varies widely (Gabon- one million; Nigeria- 115 million). Ways of life vary dramatically. Some live in cities and work in offices or skyscrapers, buy clothes from department stores and have all of the modern conveniences- yet may travel to the rural areas for traditional festivals, to see healers or to visit extended families. Rural community members may seldom visit the cities, may walk miles for water in the dry season, and listen to transistor radios as they welcome a relative back from graduate studies overseas.

58. MSN Encarta - Africa By the mid20th century the boundaries between Hutu and tutsi identities Converts were quickly won in northwestern africa, where many people saw Islam http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572628_16/Africa.html

MSN Home My MSN Hotmail Shopping ... Sign In Web Search: Encarta Subscriber Sign In Help Home ... Upgrade your Encarta Experience Search Encarta Upgrade your Encarta Experience Spend less time searching and more time learning. Learn more Tasks Find in this article Print Preview Related Items African Art and Architecture African Languages more... Further Reading Editors' picks for Africa Search for books and more related to Africa Encarta Search Search Encarta about Africa Editors' Picks Great books about your topic, Africa ... Click here Advertisement document.write(' Page 16 of 36 Africa Encyclopedia Article Multimedia 161 items Dynamic Map Map of Africa Article Outline Introduction Natural Environment People of Africa Economy ... History B Formation of Ethnic Identities If ethnicity is considered synonymous with how people are identified, both by themselves and others, then throughout Africa, language serves as its primary marker. Language links people to a specific place of origin, which, in turn, signals a shared cultural history. In South Africa, for example, the Zulu and Xhosa speak languages that are almost identical, but the minor differences are enough for people to make the distinction between the two groups. This is important to their sense of identity because the Zulu and Xhosa have followed very different paths over the last several centuries of history. Some peoples have even deeper roots. The Songhai identity existed even before the group ruled a vast West African empire in the 15th and 16th centuries. By way of contrast, the ethnic identities of many other peoples are more recent and often derive largely from external sources. The Gogo of central Tanzania are a case in point. In the mid-19th century they lived in many small clan-based chiefdoms that had no sense of being part of a wider Gogo group, even though they shared the same language. However, the phrase “gogo” was a part of several of the clans’ names, and their Nyamwezi neighbors picked up on this as a way to refer to all of them. When Arab and Swahili traders arrived in the area in the mid-19th century, they adopted this designation and passed it along to the first Europeans to enter the area. Because of repeated use, the name

59. Central Africa: Nowhere To Go; Land Loss And Cultural Degradation. The Twa Of Th The indigenous Twa ‘Pygmy’ people of the Great Lakes region of central Africaare originally a mountaindwelling hunter-gatherer people, inhabiting the high http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/87/CentralAfrica.html

Central Africa: Nowhere to go; land loss and cultural degradation. The Twa of the Great Lakes The Twa, like other African forest-dwelling hunter-gatherers, have had contacts with neighbouring farming groups for many centuries, based around reciprocal exchange relationships in which forest products were bartered for starchy foods, metal tools and other products such as salt. For many centuries, the Twa were probably able (as many other African indigenous forest peoples still do) to retreat at will into the forests, and so could control to a large degree the nature and extent of their contacts with the outside world. However, as the forests began to be cleared, the Twa were increasingly forced into contact with farmers and herders, and became caught up in unfavourable trade and labour relationships, in which the scope for negotiation became more and more constrained. As forests were cleared, some Twa groups adopted alternative livelihoods based on crafts (pottery, basketry, metalworking) or attached themselves to powerful and rich individuals, thus becoming singers, dancers, messengers, guards, warriors and hunters for kings and princes; others became clients of local landowners. In some cases these services were rewarded with gifts of cattle or land, but most Twa remained without any locally recognised rights to lands.

60. Redirect Rwandan Genocide When a rebel Rwandan tutsi army took control of Rwanda andestablished a new Some people talk of the United States, of africa. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/rwanda_9-2.html

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