41. Fossils paleontology is the study of prehistoric life as seen in fossils. were actuallyformed in the Pacific Ocean as part of reefs surround ancient islands. http://www.seinan-gu.ac.jp/~djohnson/natural/fossils.html

Paleontology and Fossils A Brief Overview Paleontology is the study of prehistoric life as seen in fossils. A fossil is a remnant or trace of a prehistoric organism. It may be a skeletal remain or other organic material remaining in rock, or, as is often the case, just the impression in rock of the organism. In this course, we will observe marine fossils deposited by one of two methods. (There are also many terrestrial and freshwater fossils in Japan.) Marine Fossils Deposited by Accretion of Pacific Island Material. The plate tectonic activity that causes the volcanoes and earthquakes of Japan has also resulted in a unique class of marine fossils being deposited on the Japanese mainland. These fossils were originally parts of coral reefs surrounding Pacific Ocean islands. Millions of years of plate tectonic activity has resulted in Pacific islands (possibly similar to the present day Hawaiian islands) colliding with the Japanese mainland as the Pacific Plate subducts under the Eurasian Plate. In this process, the materials of these coral reefs is deposited, or accreted, onto the Japanese mainland. With many subsequent rounds of such activity, this accreted material has come to be found at great distances inland, for example in the Akiyoshidai area of Yamaguchi Prefecture. The coral reef fossil deposits found at Akiyoshidai were actually formed in the Pacific Ocean as part of reefs surround ancient islands. The reef material found at Akiyoshidai does include coral deposits, but is also abundant in deposits of

42. UC Davis Geology: Paleobiology Research opportunities exist in invertebrate and vertebrate paleontology, paleobotany, Characterization of the ecology of ancient microbial reefs. http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/research/paleo.html

The field of paleobiology is thriving today, due largely to its fundamentally interdisciplinary focus- the study of the history of life in relation to the history of the Earth. Partnerships with biologists allow paleontologists to investigate questions concerning fossils as once-living organisms - their development and evolution, function and behavior, patterns of genealogical relationships. Partnerships with geologists allow paleontologists to investigate questions about the changing long-term relationships between organisms and their environment - paleoceanography, paleoecology, paleobiogeography, biogeochemistry. The UC Davis paleontology faculty and students are actively working with both biologists and geologists, on campus and elsewhere, to answer questions at the forefront of paleontological research. We welcome you to join us! The Department of Geology offers interdisciplinary curricula in paleobiology, leading to the Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees . Research opportunities exist in invertebrate and vertebrate paleontology, paleobotany, evolutionary biology, phylogenetic inference, paleoecology, taphonomy, functional morphology, biogeography, geomicrobiology, paleoclimatology, and biogeochemistry. Students are encouraged to design individual academic programs involving both empirical and theoretical approaches to investigating pattern and process in the evolution of life.

43. AtuellPartC 1996 The ancient organic reefs of China and their relations to oil and gas. Lane, NG, 1973 paleontology and paleoecology of the Crawfordsville fossil http://www.nmb.bs.ch/NaturmuseumBasel/LinksNMB/Aktuelles/APartC.html

Part C: Titles on other invertebrates (living and fossil) communities, reefs, shelf carbonates and other biogenic sediments, micropaleontology, oceanography, (paleo-)biogeography, evolution; general zoology, biographies Bulk price (total less 10%) $ 966.00 C3. Amstutz, G.C., 1958: Coprolites: A review of the literature and a study of specimens from southern Washington. Jour. Sed. Petrol. 28(4): 498-508 (photostat, 11 pp.) $ 0.60 C5. Bayer, F.M., 1961: The shallow-water Octocorallia of the West Indian Region. The Hague, M. Nijhoff, 373 pp. + 28 pls. Hardbound $ 60.00 C14. Cain, J.D.B., 1968: Aspects of the depositional environment and palaeoecology of crinoidal limestones. Scott. Jour. Geol. 4 (3): 191-208 + 2 pls (photostat, 20 pp.) $ 1.00 C16. Carpenter, W., 1845: Report on the microscopic structure of shells. London, 134 pp. + 20 pls (hardbound; ms. dedication to J.S. Bowerbank) $ 46.00 C18. Cuffey, R.J. (et al.), 1984-85: 2 offprints, 1 on bryozoan reefs, 1 on modern sclerosponges, inozoans and sphinctozoans, Enawetok Atoll. Total 19 pp. $ 2.00 C19. Darragh, T.A., 1985: Molluscan biogeography and biostratigraphy of the Tertiary of southeastern Australia. Alcheringa 9 (2): 83-116 (photostat, 18 x A3) $ 1.80

44. David Meyer 15GEOL-526-Geology Biology of Coral reefs. 15-GEOL-822-paleontology Seminar the study of such aspects of ancient organisms as ecology and functional http://www.uc.edu/geology/faculty/meyer.html

Professor of Geology Department of Geology University of Cincinnati Cincinnati, Ohio 45221-0013 telephone 513-556-4530 e-mail David.Meyer@UC.EDU Education B.S., University of Michigan, 1966 Ph.D., Yale University, 1970 15-GEOL-521- Paleontology 15-GEOL-695- Paleoecology 15-GEOL-351- Age of Dinosaurs 15-GEOL-526- 15-GEOL-822- Paleontology Seminar 15-GEOL-163- Planet Earth My research interests lie chiefly in the field of invertebrate paleontology, but extend to coral reef ecology, paleoecology, and taphonomy. Specifically, I am concerned with paleobiology, the study of such aspects of ancient organisms as ecology and functional morphology, in relation to the evolutionary history of organisms. I am particularly interested in the Phylum Echinodermata, especially the crinoids, which have a long and diverse fossil record. My research is divided between studies of present-day echinoderms and fossil forms. My research on living crinoids involves the use of SCUBA and submersible diving in regions of the Caribbean and Western Pacific. Most recently I have revisited reef study sites on the Caribbean islands of Bonaire and Curacao to assess the long-term status of crinoid populations, first examined in the 1960s and 70s. An unusual hurricane that affected lush coral reefs of these islands has prompted a new line of research for me into coral reef ecology and paleoecology. Masters student Jill Bries conducted a study of damage to the reefs resulting from Hurricane Lenny in 1999. Her work led me to examine Pleistocene reefs preserved there and to compare them with other Pleistocene reefs across the Caribbean. In collaboration with former student Ben Greenstein, we are investigating preservation potential of reefs in regions experiencing different histories of hurricane disturbance.

45. Structural Geology And Tectonics - Beintema paleontology Time Line University of Western Australia Time and Geology Jurassic Reef Park - Introduction to ancient reefs http://www.geo.uu.nl/Research/StructGeology/links.html

Geology Web Links Compiled by Kike Beintema Jump to one of these categories: Links in Utrecht Links to sites with more geo-links to geo-links General Geology Analytical Instruments And Services ... Structural Geology/Tectonics Links in Utrecht to top of page / index Structural Geology in Utrecht HPT lab in Utrecht Vening Meinesz School of Geodynamics (VMSG) in Utrecht + Delft Earth Sciences at Utrecht University Utrecht University to top of page / index Links to sites with more geo-links to geo-links to geo-links to geo-links ..... The Rock Pile G E O s e a r c h e r On-Line Resources for Earth Scientists. Online Resources for Earth Scientists: Geology (Main Index) ... to top of page / index General Geology A Geologist's Lifetime Field List - Some Places and Things a Geologist Should See Ask an Earth Scientist - University of Hawaii Ask-A-Geologist - Your Questions Answered by a Geologist, USGS Dictionary of Mining, Mineral and Related Terms - From the USGS Earth - All About the Earth's Geology. Includes Other Planets also. Evolutionary Time Line - Major Events in the Earth's Evolution Geologic Time - Introduction by The USGS Geological Time Scale - Short Explanation and Diagram The Inside of the Earth - Introduction to the Earth's Structure and Composition by the USGS Inside Geology - Introduction to Geology at Geologylink.com

46. Research View | The University Of Montana paleontology . ancient Oceans As a specialist on ancientreefs and their creatures, Stanley sometimes gets impatient with people http://www.umt.edu/urelations/rview/winter2003/oceans.htm

Winter 2003 Better Big Sky Science NSF EPSCoR Funnels Funding to Montana Language Leader Educator Works to Save Fading Indian Culture Ancient Oceans UM Paleontologist Studies Reefs and Life Across the Eons Math Mogul UM Professor Designs Widely Used Curriculum Economics 101 Expert Helps Leaders Understand State's Diverse Economy PALEONTOLOGY Ancient Oceans UM Paleontologist Studies Reefs and Life Across the Eons (Left) Researcher George Stanley holds a coral fossil from UM's Paleontology Research Collection. (Right) Ancestor of all: Stanley holds a 530-million-year-old fish fossil discovered at China's Chengjiang Biota that may be the forerunner of all vertebrates, including humans. If given access to a time machine, some people would cruise off to witness the signing of the Declaration of Independence or maybe the birth of Christ. But UM paleontologist George Stanley would take a longer jaunt perhaps jumping back 200 million years to visit the first reefs of the Mesozoic Era. Or maybe he'd zip back 540 million years to the dawn of the Cambrian Period when simple worms, jellyfish and multicellular critters living in the Earth's oceans suddenly at least in geologic terms exploded into myriad new forms.

47. Hodges, L. T. --- Fossil Binding In Modern And Ancient Reefs Are these ancient reefs true reefs that took a long time to develop? We shallconsider some comparisons between modern and ancient reefs. http://www.grisda.org/origins/14084.htm

FOSSIL BINDING IN MODERN AND ANCIENT REEFS Lance T. Hodges Department of Pharmacology and Physiology Loma Linda University Origins IN A FEW WORDS REACTION An extended period of time is necessary for organisms to build a modern reef. The same would seem to apply to ancient reefs described in the geologic record of the past. Are these ancient reefs true reefs that took a long time to develop? We shall consider some comparisons between modern and ancient reefs. A. Great Lakes Fossil Reefs The geological literature states that fossil reefs are found in many parts of the world. Many reefs are reported from the Paleozoic era which includes the Silurian and Devonian periods. The fossil reefs of the Great Lakes region in Silurian and Devonian rocks have been studied fairly intensively for about 60 years. These Great Lakes reefs are composed of a central mound or core of massive dolostone (Silurian) or limestone (Devonian), surrounded by flank beds which dip away from the central core. The cores may be a few feet to many hundreds of feet across. Parts of such reef complexes can be observed in limestone quarries, roadcuts, and outcrops. When the average person thinks of a reef, he envisions a beautiful, colorful, underwater scene with rock-like coral and algal growth, fish, and other marine plants and animals. He might then expect that corals and other calcareous rock-forming organisms would be essential and important parts of the fossil reefs which now are found elevated on dry land, and assumed to have grown in the ocean. This expectation is in fact the case for "modern" fossil reefs now found in such places as the Florida Keys, Jamaica, and Barbados. But what of the fossil reefs of the Great Lakes region? Are they composed largely of a framework of corals and other calcareous binding fossils?

48. ISGS Earth Science Resource Links - Paleontology Links — Miscellaneous Lin Stuttgart), focuses on What are the general features of modern and Ancientreefs? Why were Jurassic reefs so different from modern ones? http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/earthsci/paleo-misc.htm

Paleontology Links Miscellaneous Links Amber Home A site created to deal solely with amber and its paleontological significance. Computational Paleontology The Computational Paleontology homepage which is devoted to the use of mathematical models, simulation, computer graphics and computers in general in paleontology. Environmental Studies at Emory University The Jurassic Reef Park (in German and English; written and webbed by Reinhold Leinfelder, Stuttgart), focuses on: What are the general features of modern and Ancient reefs? Why were Jurassic reefs so different from modern ones? Can Jurassic reefs tell us more about the Jurassic world? Can Jurassic reefs contribute to the understanding of present Global Change? The Paleobiological Fund The Paleobiological Fund is established to support and enhance paleobiological and paleontological research and education in order to increase our knowledge about the evolution of all life forms and processes through fossil data. University of Sheffield-Paleontology Program Dept. of Geosciences, Arizona Univ.

49. Introduction To The Brachiopoda They diversified into a number of different morphologies and even participatedin the buildup of ancient reefs. At the end of the Paleozoic, http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/brachiopoda/brachiopoda.html

Introduction to the Brachiopoda Of lamp shells and lophophores. . . Brachiopods are marine animals that, upon first glance, look like clams. They are actually quite different from clams in their anatomy, and they are not closely related to the molluscs. They are lophophorates , and so are related to the Bryozoa and Phoronida. Although they seem rare in today's seas, they are actually fairly common. However, they often make their homes in very cold water, either in polar regions or at great depths in the ocean, and thus are not often encountered. There are about 300 living species of brachiopods. Depsite their relative obscurity today, brachiopods have a long and rich paleontological history. During the Paleozoic era, they were extremely abundant. They diversified into a number of different morphologies and even participated in the build-up of ancient reefs. At the end of the Paleozoic, some 250 million years ago, they were decimated in the worst mass extinction of all time, the Permo-Triassic event. Their numbers have never been as great since that time. Click on the buttons below to learn more about Brachiopoda.

50. Fossil Localities Of The Cambrian Period rich Latham Shale where Olenellid trilobites are numerous. WhiteInyo Mountains -You can visit ancient reefs in the mountains of eastern California. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambloc.html

Cambrian : Localities Rocks of Cambrian age are distributed in the Great Basin of the western United States, parts of the northeastern United States, Wales, Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Siberia, and China, among other places. These localities were not where they are now: the position of the continents was very different. It may seem strange to imagine California on the equator, or Venezuela near the South Pole, but that's how things were! Check out this map to learn more! Cambrian localities on this server: (see map above) Aldan River - Lower Cambrian fauna from this site in Yakutia, Siberia, trace the early evolution of animals with skeletons. Burgess Shale - One of the greatest fossil finds ever made is the Burgess fauna of British Columbia. Thousands of soft-bodied animal fossils paint us a picture of early marine life. House Range, Utah - A varied array of Cambrian critters has been found in the Wheeler Shale and the Marjum Formation, both of which are exposed in the House Range. Marble Mountains - In the hottest part of the Mojave Desert of California is the rich Latham Shale where Olenellid trilobites are numerous. White-Inyo Mountains - You can visit ancient reefs in the mountains of eastern California.

51. Past Lives: Chronicles Of Canadian Paleontology - Redwater And Ed Klovan The site presents Canadian paleontology, divided in 39 chronicles. Drill coresof this reef might disclose evidence of its ancient ecology, http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/paleochron/21_e.php

Contact us Help Search Canada site ... Natural Resources Canada Past lives: Chronicles of Canadian Paleontology Introduction Earth's bones Deep time Pethei stromatolites ... Clearwater shells Redwater reef Eusthenopteron Bothriolepis Archaeopteris Marie Stopes ... About the authors Related links GSC History Sir William Logan PaleoGallery GSC Paleontology ... GAC Paleontology Geological Survey of Canada Print version Earth Sciences Sector Geological Survey of Canada Past lives: Chronicles of Canadian Paleontology Past lives: Chronicles of Canadian Paleontology Redwater and Ed Klovan The presence of tropical reefs a mile beneath the frigid plains of central Alberta was an intriguing and lucrative novelty for petroleum geologists, but it was almost too preposterous for the general public to accept Section of core from the Upper Devonian Redwater Reef. University of Alberta Collections. Photo by BDEC (c). Alberta became a "have" province at precisely 4:00 in the afternoon on February 13, 1947. That was when Imperial Leduc No. 1, spudded 25 km southwest of Edmonton, drilled into a Devonian oil-bearing carbonate mound at a depth of 1544 m. By the end of the year, with 30 wells producing 3,500 barrels of oil a day from similar mounds in central Alberta, the province had become one of the major oil producing regions in North America. These carbonate mounds, which were relatively straightforward to find with seismic techniques, originally consisted of limestone (calcium carbonate) which later had been altered to dolostone (calcium magnesium carbonate). The resulting recrystallization and volume decrease effectively obliterated the original texture of the limestone and any associated fossils. The nature of these mounds could not be determined, but Imperial Oil geologists suspected that they were tropical reefs of Late Devonian age (380 Ma).

52. The College Of Wooster: Department Of Geology - Invertebrate Paleontology paleontology is the study of ancient organisms, and Invertebrate paleontology isthe study of ancient invertebrates, typically defined as any organisms http://www.wooster.edu/geology/Paleo.html

Invertebrate Paleontology at The College of Wooster (click to expand) Paleontology is the study of ancient organisms, and Invertebrate Paleontology is the study of ancient invertebrates, typically defined as any organisms without backbones, excluding plants and all those bacteria. The study of invertebrate fossils has been a strong component of the Wooster geology curriculum since its beginning. The first paleontologist on Wooster's faculty was Richard Liebe, who taught at Wooster from 1961 through 1967. Dr. Liebe's specialty was the systematics and biostratigraphy of conodonts. Richard Osgood was the faculty paleontologist at Wooster from 1967 until his death in 1981. He achieved international recognition for his pioneering work on invertebrate trace fossils, particularly those in the Lower and Middle Paleozoic. Since 1981 Wooster's paleontologist has been Mark Wilson, who specializes in the evolution and paleoecology of hard substrate faunas, with additional interests in early carbonate diagenesis and Pleistocene sea-level dynamics. The Invertebrate Paleontology and History of Life course webpages are also online. Click here for a frames web tour of

53. Geology 260 (Sedimentology & Stratigraphy) Syllabus -- Spring 2005 Let s not forget all those wonderful ancient reefs as well. The Reef Group based in Munich has a good introductory page with links to many pictures of http://www.wooster.edu/geology/Geo260/Geo260.html

(Geology 260) Department of Geology, The College of Wooster Spring 2005 Course Notes Project Pages Last Year's Field Trip Prep Questions Writing Standards Welcome to the Sedimentology and Stratigraphy course at The College of Wooster. This is a web syllabus for use every week by the class and any other interested students or geologists. Each week I will add links to pages relevant to lecture, lab and the field trip . I will usually just be a week ahead, since links change rapidly in this field. The notes and other specific course items can be found at the end of this page. If you have any suggestions for this web syllabus, especially pertinent links, please send me an e-mail message. We have a separate page describing faculty and student research in sedimentology and stratigraphy at Wooster. You may also want to see our brand-new Desert Geology course webpage. Our course material will be supplemented by lectures from visiting speakers in our

54. LATE TRIASSIC GASTROCHAENID AND LITHOPHAGINID BORINGS (MOLLUSCA The History and Sedimentology of ancient Reef Systems Topics in Geobiology. Journal of paleontology, 724769–772. Wood, RA, 1999. Reef Evolution. http://www.psjournals.org/paleoonline/?request=get-document&issn=0022-3360&volum

55. STROMATOPOROIDEA, 1926–2000 Role of the Journal of paleontology.—In the past 75 years 46 articles on 215) noted that “in most documentations of supposed ancient reef succession, http://www.psjournals.org/paleoonline/?request=get-document&issn=0022-3360&volum

56. Trilobite Ecology And Ancient Environments This image of oncocerid nautiloids from the Virtual Silurian Reef 1996 paperby Desmond Collins (J. paleontology 70(2)28093) describing the history of http://www.trilobites.info/triloecology.htm

Trilobite Ecology and Ancient Environments This page last revised 23 August 2005 by S. M. Gon III Continental Drift in the Paleozoic Era Millions of years ago This animation of changing continental configurations courtesy of the PaleoMap Project developed by Christopher R. Scotese. Half a billion years ago , the Earth's marine environment was certainly not the same as it is today. It is likely that the ocean's chemistry, including salinity, was different, and the configuration of the ocean basins and continents was entirely unlike our modern globe, because of continental drift Biotic environments (the living community of plants and animals) were also different. While there were many species of marine plants and animals, many groups prominent today were missing, or poorly represented. For example, in the Cambrian and Ordovician , there were no jawed fishes , and Crustaceans (crabs, shrimps, etc.) which dominate the arthropod fauna of today's oceans, were present, but not prominent. A view of a Silurian reef (courtesy of the Virtual Silurian Reef ) How many trilobites can you find?

57. Queensland Museum - Palaeontology & Geology ancient life and climate change in Queensland as recorded in cave deposits Fossil insects from the Triassic of Queensland; Ye Olde Barrier reefs Fossil http://www.qmuseum.qld.gov.au/organisation/sections/PalaeontologyGeology/index.a

about us contact search museums ... Biodiversity Palaeontology and Geology Research Biodiversity Cultures and Histories Geoscience Palaeontology and Geology Museum Library Memoirs Journal Cambrian crinoids (Sea lillies) from western Queensland. Palaeontology and Geology Dr Peter Jell Dr Alex Cook Mr Scott Hocknull Ms Kristen Spring ... Dr Alan Bartholomai (Hon) Prof Trevor Clifford (Hon) Dr Steve Salisbury (Hon) Dr Mary Dettmann (Hon) Dr Mary Wade (Hon) Dr Don McKenzie (Hon) Dr Sue Turner (Hon) Ms Judith Bracefield (Hon) Section The Queensland Museum Palaeontology section is charged with collecting, describing and storing in perpetuity the rich fossil heritage of the State. The many staff and volunteers are involved in a number of projects throughout the State which enrich our knowledge of the history of life of Queensland, and add to the tourism potential of many places. The staff look after the seven million fossils in the State collections, undertake education, display and public activities, and go out and find new things. They make replicas of fossils for use in the Tourist market, and prepare fossils for display and research. Current Projects Riversleigh Remnants: The fossil history of Australia’s rainforests and arid zone Ancient life and climate change in Queensland as recorded in cave deposits Fossil fruits and seeds from beneath basalts in Queensland Australia's Megafauna: Was the extinction of the megafauna caused by humans or climate? Changes to ecosystems in Australia and their effect on modern and extinct species

58. Colgate Geology Courses reefs are organic fantasia , one of the most visually stunning and This courseexamines modern and ancient marine environmental systems via intensive http://departments.colgate.edu/geology/courses/

Course Offerings (click on course name for description) 101 Environmental Geology Planet Earth 115 Evolution: Dinosaurs to Darwin 135 Introduction to Oceanography ... B. Selleck How do geologic processes and events directly influence human societies? How have humans changed the earth? Fundamental geologic concepts such as plate tectonics, geologic time, and surficial processes are used as a basis for understanding a variety of natural geologic hazards including earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, floods, and coastal erosion. Real-world examples of the interplay between human activities and the environment include soil and groundwater contamination, mineral and energy resource development, and threats to the earth's biodiversity. Also, the course takes a closer look at the geologic record of global change and the debate over global warming. This course is an interdisciplinary approach to environmental geosciences. Three lectures per week and a weekly field experience. Return to Course List 105 Megageology - Origin and Evolution of the Planet Earth A. Goldstein

59. Roth On Reefs The role of framework in modern reefs and its application to ancient systems.In Stanley, GD, ed., The history and sedimentology of ancient reef systems. http://www.geocities.com/earthhistory/roth.htm

Fossil Reefs, Flood Geology, and Recent Creation Last edited: In his article Fossil Reefs and Time (1995), Young-Earther and biologist Ariel Roth argues that there are " alternative interpretations " of fossil reefs " that do not require long ages ," i.e. do not require the planet earth to be older than about 10,000 years. Roth offers three options for interpreting putative fossil reefs within the context of a young-earth flood geology framework. First, particular fossil reefs may not be reefs or bioaccretionary structures at all, but rather current-formed buildups of transported debris ('allochthonous reefs'). For instance, Roth suggests that the Capitan reef complex and the structures referred to as 'mud-mounds' (Monty et al., 1995) may be interpreted as allochthonous sedimentary structures formed during the flood. Second, particular fossil reefs may in fact be genuine 'autochthonous reefs,' formed by slow biological activity, that have been transported from the site of growth and are therefore allochthonous with respect to the underlying stratum. A third option suggests that some reefs are autochthonous accumulations and in place with respect to the underlying rock, and formed during the period between the creation and the flood. This could only apply to fossil reefs overlying a Precambrian substrate, and requires reef accretion rates more than 10 times faster than those of the fastest-growing modern reefs. The Devonian reef complex of the Canning basin, west Australia is considered a possible preflood reef, for example. These three interpretations are considered for the cases of the Capitan reef, carbonate mud mounds, and the Devonian reef complex of the Canning basin.

60. GE251 Field Trip To Ripogenus Dam How to determine if an ancient reef formed a waveresistant framework? Modern and ancient reefs, then, are extremely varied and encompass a wide range http://www.colby.edu/~ragastal/GE251/Ripogenus.htm

What is a reef? GE 251 Field Trip to Ripogenus Dam The term derives from the old Norse word rif that means a hazardous rib of rock, sand, or biological material lying close to the surface of the sea. But, due to the variance in biological meaning, the term reef has no universally defined meaning. The most widespread term is very restrictive - a rigid, wave-resistant framework consisting of large skeletal organisms. But, modern coral reefs possess unique ecological features and environmental requirements, both of which are difficult to discern in the fossil record. How to determine if an ancient reef formed a wave-resistant framework? Different geographic and oceanographic settings vary in wave structure, which makes any determination difficult. The presence of an in situ marine community which has formed some relief is evidence that the organisms could develop under specific hydrodynamic processes, but not necessarily that they were wave-resistant. Reefs also are comprised of both living, structurally sound components and those parts that have been obliterated resulting in reef rubble. Hence, the expression of a reef in the fossil record may have little similarity to that of a modern reef. Large skeletal organisms are not conspicuous components of reefs in the past. Different evolutionary grades of marine invertebrates and plants have existed, and much of the ancient record is comprised of cement and peloidal micrite (pellet-shaped carbonate mud clasts). Hence, over the long term, biological processes other than the growth of large, skeletal organisms can contribute to the framework of the reef. Modern and ancient reefs, then, are extremely varied and encompass a wide range of both inorganic and organic phenomena.

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