Extractions: Save a personal copy of this article and quickly find it again with Furl.net. It's free! Save it. The history of Western colonialism is inextricably linked to the visual representation of indigenous peoples as "Others" to white European culture. In The Third Eye: Race, Cinema, and Ethnographic Spectacle, Fatimah Tobing Rony provides us with profound insight into the modern project of representing the Savage through her compelling analysis of ethnographic cinema. Her account is multifaceted, incorporating historical documentation of colonialist discourses, close analysis of films, and the call for a cultural politics of representation. For Rony, the term "ethnographic cinema" refers to more than just those ostensibly empirical documents produced by anthropological fieldworkers observing natives in their environments. Rather, it defines a field of cinematic practice in which colonized subjects are represented as savages and situated in a temporal realm displaced from that of European culture. Rony's analysis cuts across the conventional boundaries between the various filmic genres; as noted, she does not limit her study to documents clearly aligned with anthropological field research but trains her gaze on the Hollywood cinema as well.
Ddwills Courses Ant 399 africa Ant 352 Development Anthropology in West africa, and, likemost indigenous peoples of africa and elsewhere, place a high value on http://www.csupomona.edu/~ddwills/
Extractions: HI! to my courses. FALL QUARTER WINTER QUARTER SPRING QUARTER CLS 201/301 Digital Media Minor SSC 101 Soc Sci Ant 399 Africa Ant 352 Development Anthropology Ant 405 Anthro of Gender ... Ant 104 Linguistic Anthro. (NOT FALL '05) Ant 358 Social Anthro. Ant 353 Language and Culture Ant 379 Middle East IGE 121 (NOT CURRENT) Ant 370 Visual Anthropology Click on my picture for a welcome. DOROTHY DAVIS WILLS, Ph.D. Department of Geography and Anthropology California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Pomona CA 91768 ZIMBABWE TRAINING WORKSHOP Writing Research Projects Fun Stuff ... Valuable Links On this Web Page, you will be able to explore my courses without actually having to take them! Imagine that! If you are registered for one of them, you will find information that supplements what you are learning in class, along with useful exercises, references to other sources of information, and directions to assignments. I also occasionally teach Ethnic and Women's Studies courses, for instance EWS 407 ("Sexual Orientation and Diversity"). In our department, we use ANT 499 to teach a variety of Special Topics for advanced students; I have used this rubric to develop a course on the "Anthropology of Waste Management", which has been taught three times in the past. Currently, I am directing a special course in Visual Anthropology ("Anthropology.TV") in ANT 499. I have also been working with the teaching group at the Center for Regenerative Studies from time to time, on one of their seminars
Background Notes Archive - Africa Languages English (official), Mandinka, wolof, Fula, other indigenous PEOPLE AND HISTORY A wide variety of ethnic groups live side by side in The http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/af/gambia9607.html
L.C. Subject Headings Weekly List 27 (July 7, 1999) E48 450 UF Foxhound 550 BT Foxhounds 150 Epic poetry, wolof May Subd Geog of aboriginal peoples with Westerners 150 indigenous peoplesInternational http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/wls99/awls9927.html
Tiscali - Search A ethnography on the Hausa people of africa. 30.Highland Scots Ethnographicsummary of a group of indigenous mountain peoples of northern Luzon, http://directory.tiscali.it/Science/Social_Sciences/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthro
Extractions: OneWorld U.S. Home In Depth Africa Search for OneWorld.net OneWorld Africa OneWorld Austria OneWorld Canada OneWorld Finland OneWorld Italy OneWorld Latin America OneWorld Netherlands OneWorld South Asia OneWorld Spain OneWorld SouthEast Europe OneWorld United Kingdom OneWorld United States AIDSChannel Digital Opportunity Kids Channel LearningChannel TODAY'S NEWS IN DEPTH PARTNERS GET INVOLVED ... OUR NETWORK Africa Central Africa East Africa North Africa Southern Africa ... Contact Us If you wish to look further into some topics fill out the search criteria below or select from the menu on the left. keyword topic select Development Children Cities Agriculture Aid Education Emergency Relief Energy Fisheries Food Intermediate Technology International Cooperation Labor Land MDGs Migration Population Poverty Refugees Social Exclusion Capacity Building Tourism Transport Volunteering Water/Sanitation Youth Economy Consumption Corporations Credit and Investment Debt Finance Microcredit Business Trade Environment Climate Change Conservation Environmental Activism Animals Forests Genetics Atmosphere Nuclear Issues Biodiversity Oceans Pollution Renewable Energy Rivers Soils Health Disease/treatment HIV/AIDS Infant Mortality Malaria Narcotics Nutrition/Malnutrition Human Rights Civil Rights Disability Gender Indigenous Rights Race Politics Religion Sexuality Social Exclusion Communication Culture Freedom of Expression ICT Internet Knowledge
Extractions: OneWorld U.S. Home In Depth Africa Southern Africa Search for OneWorld.net OneWorld Africa OneWorld Austria OneWorld Canada OneWorld Finland OneWorld Italy OneWorld Latin America OneWorld Netherlands OneWorld South Asia OneWorld Spain OneWorld SouthEast Europe OneWorld United Kingdom OneWorld United States AIDSChannel Digital Opportunity Kids Channel LearningChannel TODAY'S NEWS IN DEPTH PARTNERS GET INVOLVED ... OUR NETWORK Southern Africa Botswana Bouvet Island Heard and McDonald Islands Lesotho ... Contact Us If you wish to look further into some topics fill out the search criteria below or select from the menu on the left. keyword topic select Development Children Cities Agriculture Aid Education Emergency Relief Energy Fisheries Food Intermediate Technology International Cooperation Labor Land MDGs Migration Population Poverty Refugees Social Exclusion Capacity Building Tourism Transport Volunteering Water/Sanitation Youth Economy Consumption Corporations Credit and Investment Debt Finance Microcredit Business Trade Environment Climate Change Conservation Environmental Activism Animals Forests Genetics Atmosphere Nuclear Issues Biodiversity Oceans Pollution Renewable Energy Rivers Soils Health Disease/treatment HIV/AIDS Infant Mortality Malaria Narcotics Nutrition/Malnutrition Human Rights Civil Rights Disability Gender Indigenous Rights Race Politics Religion Sexuality Social Exclusion Communication Culture Freedom of Expression
Africa Point: Senegal Travel Information People wolof (36%), Fulani (17%), Sérèr (17%), Toucouleur (9%), Diola (9%), Like many African tribes, Senegal s main indigenous group, the wolof, http://www.africapoint.com/travel/senegal.htm
Extractions: Africa Point: Senegal Travel Information Visas, Health, Tourist Attractions, Economy, Maps, Peoples, History and other Useful Senegal Travel Info Senegal: Travel Basics Destination Facts Activities Reading ... Travel Travel Basics Overview The most happening hang in West Africa, tropical Senegal is lauded for its beauties both natural and ephemeral. From its urbane capital, Dakar - many travelers' favourite amongst the larger African cities - to its fertile southern region of forest and farmland, the Casamance, much of its lands are lush and vital, especially compared to the expansive deserts that surround it. Senegal's arts are just as lively, with a thriving textile market and an entourage of internationally known native musicians, such as Youssou N'dour and Touré Kunda. Altogether, Senegal's attractions bring in more visitors than any other country's in the region. True, most are package tourists soaking up the sunshine in the highbrow hotels that line its Atlantic shore, but there's something in Senegal for every budget and the best of it - a good wander through its streets and plains - is free.
Extractions: OneWorld UK In depth Africa Southern Africa ... Botswana Search for OneWorld.net Africa América Latina América Latina in English Austria Canada Canada en Français España España en Catalunya Finland - maailma.net Italy - Unimondo.org Nederland South Asia SouthEast Europe UK United States OneWorld Radio AIDS Radio Radio SEEurope OneWorld TV AIDS Channel Digital Opportunity Channel Itrainonline.org Kids Channel Learning Channel Media Channel Open Knowledge Network NEWS IN DEPTH PARTNERS GET INVOLVED ... OUR NETWORK Southern Africa Botswana Bouvet Island Heard and McDonald Islands Lesotho ... Donate If you wish to look further into some topics fill out the search criteria below or select from the menu on the left. keyword topic select Development Capacity building Children Cities Agriculture Aid Education Emergency relief Energy Fisheries Food Intermediate technology International cooperation Labour Land MDGs Migration Population Poverty Refugees Social exclusion Tourism Transport Volunteering Water/sanitation Youth Economy Consumption Corporations Credit and investment Debt Finance Microcredit Business Trade Environment Climate change Conservation Environmental activism Forests Genetics Animals Nuclear Issues Atmosphere Oceans Pollution Biodiversity Renewable energy Rivers Soils Health Disease AIDS Infant mortality Malaria Narcotics Nutrition/malnutrition Human rights Civil rights Disability Gender Indigenous rights Race Politics Religion Sexuality Social exclusion
Tostan News - Remaking Culture In Senegal Tostan, literally means breaking out of the egg in wolof, the language is from the indigenous Knowledge section of the World Bank s africa Region, http://www.tostan.org/news-remakingculture.htm
Extractions: Click here to close this window Note: At IKNotes you can find these articles in French, English and Wolof. www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/iknotes.htm Senegalese Women Remake Their Culture Although for decades the capital of French West Africa, Senegal, like other countries of the Sahel, remains predominantly rural. and while 62 percent of the people reside in rural areas, more than 85 percent of the wealth is in urban centers. As in many countries, disadvantage accumulates at the level of women and girls. In 1995, female literacy countrywide was just over half the rate for men (23 percent compared to 44 percent), and the discrepancy was still greater in rural areas. Tostan, literally means "breaking out of the egg" in Wolof, the language spoken by the majority of Senegal's 7.9 million people and is among a number of innovative rural development and women's education initiatives that are addressing the problem at its source. It offers an 18-month learning program that combines basic education in national languages with practical development issues, and provides rural people with the resources to improve their standard of living while fostering increased confidence in their way of life.
Extractions: Summary: Trek inland to the remote site of Great Zimbabwe, a fabulous "lost city, " which reached the height of its glory in the 14th century. Then, sift through the sands of time to uncover the equally splendid culture of Africa's Swahili Coast. The fabulously wealthy center of the thriving gold and ivory trades until the 16th century, its cities now lie all but forgotten, buried under centuries of indifference. Reclaiming their past from a long tradition of racial prejudice and neglect, the descendants of these lost cultures are only now discovering the extraordinary achievements of Africa's indigenous civilizations. 048 Min. VIDEO 1995 Subject: ANTHROPOLOGY, EARLY CIVILIZATION Series: LOST CIVILIZATIONS VH 7608 Africa, Africas
Resources On The Fang Mandinka, wolof, Fula, other indigenous vernaculars, . Fang People. Gabon,Central African Republic, Cameroon. indigenous repair made to top. http://www.mongabay.com/indigenous_ethnicities/african/Fang.html
Extractions: Africa covers about one fifth of the world's land area and about an eighth of its people. It is a land of striking contrasts and great natural wonders, from the tropical rain forests of western and central Africa, to the world's largest desert, the Sahara, to vast grasslands, and the world's longest river, the Nile. Africa is divided into 53 independent countries and protectorates. The African people belong to several population groups and have many cultural backgrounds of rich and varied ancestry. There are over 800 ethnic groups in sub-Saharan Africa, each with its own language, religion, and way of life. African dance embodies athleticism and a graceful beauty flowing with rhythm. In Africa, dance is a means of marking the experiences of life, encouraging abundant crops, and healing the sick soul and body. It is also done purely for enjoyment. All ceremonial African dances have a purpose. They tell stories and relate history. African music and dance in its essence communicates concepts of life on an elevated level; dance to the African is a universal, transcendent language. Traditionally, people throughout the continent of Africa achieve direct communication between themselves and their gods through ritual music and dance, including many with masks.
Africa Over 3 million wolof live in Senegal, a country of eight million people.They practice Sufi Islam mixed with African traditional religion. http://www.pff.net/Projects/projafr.htm
Extractions: (GIVING STATUS E = expandable C = capped) #E-040060 Afar Country Ethiopia CG EECMY None Islam pffnet-afar @yahoogroups.com Afar is a state in northeast Ethiopia with a population of 1.1 million, almost all of whom are members of the Afar tribe. They are 99.2% Muslim. In 1994 only 2.7% of the people attended school. Even today many are nomadic animal herders. Our PCUSA partner church in Ethiopia, The Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus (EECMY), has had contacts with these people since 1990, including bringing education to some of them. Some of the region's government officials received their own education through the EECMY, and are now asking the EECMY to help their people with services such as veterinary, literacy, water, grinding mills, tree nursery and hostel works. The PCUSA has partnered with the EECMY to undertake these opportunities in a careful and sensitive way as part of a holistic ministry. Already some Afar people have responded to the Gospel. Our funding helps train literacy workers who witness to Christ through word and deeds. We also provide materials to help with their work. (KV) #E-040019 Dawro, Ethiopia
Extractions: Upcoming Events Forthcoming Conferences in 2005 - 2006 This conference aims to: facilitate the identification and testing of potentially beneficial low-cost naturally-derived medicinal products for HIV/AIDS prevention and cure and also facilitate the production of valuable resources which will ensure sound education and cultural empowerment in the fields of medicine, health care and sustainable development. The Global Summit on HIV/AIDS, Traditional Medicine and Indigenous Knowledge will be held at the Accra International Centre, Republic of Ghana. For more information visit: http://www.africa-first.com/gsaidstmik2006/default.aspx G lobal Conference on African Healing Wisdom, Washington DC, July 6-9, 2005 The workshop aims to To increase the capacity for dialogue and cooperation among traditional healers and health care providers across the health continuum in the United States, African countries and African communities in the Americas and Caribbean region. For more information visit: http://www.procultura.org/AFRICA.htm
SIM People Group Profile: Wolof An estimated 3.2 million wolof live across West africa. african PeopleGroups ? Asian People Groups ? South American People Groups ? http://www.sim.org/PG.asp?pgid=47&fun=2
SIM Country Profile: Mauritius A. There are no indigenous peoples; all ethnic groups immigrated within African People Groups ? Asian People Groups ? South American People Groups ? http://www.sim.org/country.asp?cid=32&fun=2
Ethnic Groups focuses on conflicts between african states and minority groups, and indigenouspeople s rights. The peoples of africa An Ethnohistoric Dictionary. http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/cm/africana/ethnicit.htm
Extractions: African Ethnicities Please note that I have a separate page available on African languages A number of Web pages have been produced by members of indigenous minority and majority ethnic groups world-wide. Rather than primarily serving as academic, encyclopedic, or anthropological resources, they are often self-promotional, but several provide excellent information and rigorous documentation. This is a small collection of such pages produced primarily by Africans, along with some material produced by others. Most often, these African ethnic group home pages are a direct expression of individual members of the group, but in several cases represent an academic, official, or institutional point of view. If you are looking for an "objective" presentation, these links may not be the best sources for your work. Nevertheless, most have very good cultural, historical, and other background information, and many provide links to related sites that you may also find useful. Below the list, there is a collection of Other sites with information on African ethnic groups with different kinds of resources, for example, with a national, cultural anthropological, or linguistic focus. Finally, because this is an area that is not well represented on the web, a
Wolof The indigenous language is also called wolof. In each village a few peopleown cattle, but these are considered more as a sort of wealth reserve than a http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/EthnoAtlas/Hmar/Cult_dir/Culture.7882
Extractions: Society-WOLOF The Wolof constitute a large ethnic group located mainly in the western part of the former French West African colony of Senegal, and extending southward into The Gambiaa former British colony. Wolof (Ouolof in the standard French orthography) is the name by which the people refer to themselves, and the label commonly used in scholarly publications. But a large number of orthographic variants occur in the literature, ranging from Chelofes, Guiolof, and Iolof, to Joloffs, Valaf, and Yuloff. The indigenous language is also called Wolof. It is classified within the Northern Branch of the West Atlantic subfamily of the Niger-Congo language family. The most closely related languages are Serer and Fulbe (Fulani) (Greenberg 1966: 7-8, 25; Voegelin 1977: 28-29). The Lebu, a separate ethnic group centered in the Cap Vert peninsula of Senegal, speak a distinct Wolof dialect. The Wolof language is rapidly becoming the national vernacular of Senegal. Members of other ethnic groups are increasingly learning Wolof as a second language, especially in the urban areas. It was recently estimated that 80 percent of Senegalese speak Wolof (Nelson et al. 1974: 81). The total Wolof population as of 1977 was approximately 1,500,000. The great majority of this population falls within the area of northwestern Senegambia. The northern boundary of this area is the Senegal River, which flows from east to west at approximately lat. 16 degrees 30 minutes N; the Atlantic coast forms the western boundary, while the southern boundary is marked by the Gambia River at roughly lat. 13 degrees 30 minutes N. There is no clear-cut eastern boundary, but based on population distribution and density maps, it is possible to set the effective eastern limit of the area at about long. 14 degrees W. Some Wolof are distributed to the east and south of this area in Senegambia, and it has been estimated that neighboring countries such as Guinea, Mali, and Mauritania may each contain a few thousand Wolof. As of 1963, the predominant ethnic groups in The Gambia were the Malinke (130,000) and the Fulbe (70,000), while the Wolof ranked third with a population of about 40,000, or about 13 percent of the total Gambian population of 316,000. Except for those living within the city of Banjul (formerly Bathurst) and its environs, most of the Wolof are located north of the Gambia River. Senegal is by far the most important national unit since this is where approximately 95 percent of the Wolof are located. They constitute the dominant ethnic group in Senegal both politically and numerically as over one-third of the national population. The census of 1960-61 produced an estimate of 1,103,000 Wolof, which was about 35 percent of the total Senegalese population (Pelissier 1966: 18-26). In 1971 the Wolof population of Senegal was estimated at 1,375,000, or about 36 percent of the total population of 3,800,000. The first solid documentary information on the Wolof dates from the travels of Ca da Mosto in 1455, but according to oral traditions, the Wolof ethnic group may have been in the process of formation sometime around the beginning of the thirteenth century. Probably during the fourteenth century, the Wolof were unified into a loose political federation known as the Djolof Empire centered in northwestern Senegal. Around the middle of the sixteenth century, this empire fragmented into its component parts, giving rise to the four major Wolof kingdoms of Walo, Djolof proper, Cayor (Kayor), and Baol, running roughly from north to south. The subsequent history of these kingdoms is rife with political intrigue and exploitation, rebellions, and warfare both against one another and against the Moors. As a result, their boundaries fluctuated over time, but their relative locations and the core areas of each remained stable for over 300 years. European contacts with the Wolof began about the middle of the fifteenth century, but they did not reach any major significance until the nineteenth century. Gradually, a few commercial centers were established along the coast, the principal ones being at St. Louis and Goree. The Europeans were mostly interested in trade, and this centered on gum arabic and slaves. Peanut-growing was introduced into Senegal about 1840, and soon became the principal item of export, with the Cayor developing as the main peanut-producing region. In the 1850s, primarily to protect their economic interests, the French launched their first serious attempts to conquer the Wolof kingdoms. Although the Wolof put up a bitter resistance to French conquest, by the end of the century they were completely subjugated and the French colonial administration fully implanted. During this same period, and probably to a large extent in reaction to French pressures and conquests, the Wolof, who had a long and ambivalent involvement with Islam, became rapidly and thoroughly Islamicized. The French also stimulated the development of urban centers, which became the most profound sources of change and Westernization during the twentieth century. Finally, these developments generated two major migratory patterns among the Wolof, which continue to the present day. First, the Wolof spread from their traditional center in the northwest to the south and southeast of the main Serer area in the Sine-Saloum, and eastward into the western Ferlo and the region of Senegal Oriental. This migratory trend has been motivated mainly by the search for new, more fertile lands for the commercial exploitation of peanuts. The second migratory pattern is the persisting movement from rural to urban areas, particularly in the post-World War II period. Although the bulk of the Wolof, probably 70 to 75 percent, are still rural villagers, the remainder constitute an important element in many of the larger urban centers of Senegal. The Wolof manifest a broad range of cultural variation and also share many cultural features with neighboring peoples such as the Lebu, Serer, and Tukulor. As Gamble (1957: vii) has clearly pointed out: "The variability in Wolof culture means that almost every statement made abnout them needs to be accompanied by a label as to time and place." Several major components of variation will be discussed briefly. Perhaps the most obvious distinction is that between the Senegalese and the Gambian Wolof. The former were subjected to French colonization, administration, education, linguistic and other cultural influences, while the latter were subjected to the same range of influences by a different European power, the British. This has resulted in important cultural differences between these two groups of Wolof. The remainder of this discussion will deal only with the Wolof of Senegal. The most fundamental basis of distinction among the Senegalese Wolof is the rural-urban differentiation. This does not include all urban Wolof, however, but only that relatively small segment which is truly urbanized and to a significant extent Westernized. Their importance is much greater than their numbers would indicate, however, because they constitute a part of the national elite. Another dimension of variation, particularly among the rural Wolof, consists of regional differences coinciding roughly with the domains of the former kingdoms plus the more recent areas of settlement. Environmental differences, the influence of the various neighboring cultural groups, varying access to modes of transportation, etc., have all contributed to regional demographic and sociocultural modifications. A closely related element of variation is differences among rural villages in the degree of urban influence and involvement in national affairs. Villages fall along a continuum, from a quite isolated type to a highly "progressive" type, where one finds a modern school, a dispensary, national political party representation, etc. Greenfield's studies (1966A, 1966B) have shown that the simple fact of children having a few years of formal, Western-style education has a significant impact on their cognitive development and orientation. There are also religiously based variations. Nearly all Wolof are Muslims and are organized mainly into two major Muslim brotherhoods. Villages occupied largely or entirely by members of one of these brotherhoods, the Muridiyya, differ in a number of respects from other Wolof villages, particularly in social organization. The final component of variation, which crosscuts all of the above, is the time dimension. As previously indicated, the Wolof have a documented history of over 500 years. Significant changes have occurred throughout this history. Nevertheless, there has been a basic sociocultural continuity to the extent that the earliest and most recent accounts of the Wolof are remarkably similar in many respects. Despite the differences outlined above, there are some major unifying elements which contribute to the ethnic integrity and continuity of the Wolof. These include a common language, a highly conscious sense of ethnic identity and pride, the persistence of the traditional system of social stratification (although in somewhat modified form) and of basic patterns of kinship and marriage, a common religion, Islam, along with the retention of crucial beliefs and practices from their traditional magico-religious system, and common patterns of interpersonal relations, with their associated emotional loadings. The following sketch will focus upon the major patterns of life as manifested primarily among the rural village Wolof of northwestern Senegal. The Wolof mainly occupy a tropical, semi-desert environment called the Sahel. Vegetation is sparse and the topsoil consists of loose sand. Through most of this ecological zone there is no surface water, so villagers must depend on wells for all of their domestic water needs. The subsistence economy is based on agriculture which in turn depends on rainfall, the key environmental factor. The year is divided into two sharply distinct seasons, a rainy season lasting from June into October, which is the agricultural period, and a dry season the rest of the year. Unfortunately, there may be wide annual variations in the amount of rainfall, and in some years the harvest is very poorwhich for many people means serious hunger if not actual starvation. The basic subsistence crop and staple food is millet (primarily Pennisetum gambicum), while the main cash crop is peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). The second major foodstuff is rice, but it is not grown by most villagers and must be purchased. Manioc (cassava) is often grown mainly as a cash crop, but some is also eaten. Other vegetables are grown by a few villagers, especially in the better watered region near the coast, but most villagers must buy their vegetables. The predominant domestic animals which serve as sources of meat are chickens, goats, and sheep. The primary source of protein, however, is fish, which villagers usually purchase in a dried or smoked form. Only a small percentage of Wolof are fishermen. In each village a few people own cattle, but these are considered more as a sort of wealth reserve than a food resource. Beef tends to be eaten only when cattle are killed for a ceremonial feast. The average size of Wolof villages tends to be quite small, with a mean population range of about 50 to 150 (Pelissier 1966: 135-59). In a few regions, more favorable ecological conditions probably combined with various socioeconomic and political factors have resulted in larger villages. For instance, in the southern part of the Cayor, villages seem to average from 300 to 350 in population size. There is also an occasional village with a much larger population1,000 to 2,000 peopleusually due to special historical circumstances, such as being the political center of a broad area. Two types of settlement plans are found among most Wolof villages. Probably the most traditional type is the plan according to which a village consists of two or three completely separate groups of residential compounds with no central focus. The other type consists of a nucleated village with nearly all of the residential compounds grouped around a central plaza. On the fringe of the plaza are often found small shops and public buildings, and a mosque is usually located in the center of the plaza. Many Wolof villages have an attached hamlet or encampment of Fulbe (Peul) who "belong" to the village and herd their cattle. Village social organization is reflected in the spatial organization. Wolof society is characterized by a relatively rigid, complex system of social stratification. This system consists of a series of hierarchically ranked strata in which membership is ascribed by patri-filiation. Although these strata are usually called "castes" (and less commonly, "social classes") in the literature, here they will be referred to as status groups. The status groups are organized into three major hierarchical levels. The first of these is an upper or dominant level called geer, which is pre-conquest times was divided into several status groups including the garmi or royal lineages, the dom-i-bur or nobility, and the jaambur or free-born commoners, the majority of whom were small-scale cultivators called baadolo; these distinctions may still be alluded to on special occasions, but essentially the different strata have fused into a single status group which retains the label geer. Second is a lower or artisan level called nyenyoo, consisting of several occupationally-defined status groups. These groups include the metalsmiths (teug), the leatherworkers (wude), the weavers (rab), and the griots (gewel), who are the lineage genealogists, musicians, and general carriers of gossip. The lowest level is composed of the descendants of slaves (jaam), who are still called by that term. The jaam are differentiated into subgroups which are named and ranked according to the status of their former masters. This stratification system is a crucial aspect of village social life, and still retains a great deal of significance in the urban areas. Membership in a particular status group coordinates with specific social prerogatives and obligations which are ascribed, and which are manifested in social behavior. Each status category tends to be an endogamous unit, and the three major levels are strictly endogamous. In the villages the geer usually hold all of the key political offices and most of the dominant ritual roles rooted in Islam. The basic social units in the village are locally recognized and spatially demarcated residential groups usually occupying a single compound. The Wolof term for these units is ker, while the French usually call them "carres." The core of each ker generally consists of a patrilocal extended family. The component family units tend to be polygynous. The Wolof follow Islamic marriage laws which permit up to four legal wives. There is also some preference for marriage with either cross-cousin. The ker is a corporate group and has an official head, the borom ker, who is the senior male of the dominant family unit. The borom ker allocates the fields to be cultivated by the ker members, settles minor disputes within the ker, and represents the ker in important village affairs. The ker may or may not constitute a single household. The main exceptions occur in the case of the larger ker which often incorporate an unrelated family unit of a lower status category. The head of that family unit stands in a client-patron relationship with the borom ker. Groups of contiguous ker are usually related patrilineally, and form localized patrilineal lineages. The patrilineal lineage (genyoo) is the pivotal kin group at the politico-jural level. The patrilineages are the groups that control the land, and they are the crucial units from the standpoint of property inheritance and usufruct. Political rank and the control of political offices in the village are also determined primarily by patrilineage affiliation. The senior male of a patrilineage is its official head (laman). This title is often interpreted in economic terms, since it is he who actually "controls" the lands of the patrilineage, and usually receives the tithe or waref for the use of these lands. The waref is generally equivalent to 10 percent of the production or income from a field. The Senegalese government has been making strenuous attempts to change this traditional system of land control which it considers exploitative. The Wolof also recognize a matrilineal descent line, the men. This is not a corporate group, and it has no basic politico-jural functions. Therefore, the Wolof do not have a true double descent systemat least at the village level in modern times. It is true that royal matrilineages played a significant social role within the traditional kingdoms, but there are no data as to whether matrilineages were also found at the commoner level. The importance of Islam among the Wolof has already been noted. In fact, it would be very difficult for a convert to Christianity to continue living in a Wolof village. The two dominant Muslim brotherhoods (tariqas) among the Wolof are the Tijaniyya and the Muriddiyya. Men become members of a brotherhood upon circumcision. They normally follow the brotherhood of their fathers. Women become members of a brotherhood upon marriage, joining the same one as their husbands'. The basic complimentary religious roles are those of taalibe, a disciple or follower, and marabout (serigne), a kind of religious leader. There is an intricate hierarchy of marabouts ranging from those who have only an elementary knowledge of the Koran and little influence, up to the powerful khalifs who head the brotherhoods. The most common function of marabouts at the village level is to make protective amulets worn by all villagers, and for which the marabout receives a fee. These amulets consist of passages from the Quran written on slips of paper encased in leather packets. Various types of amulets are believed to have the power to protect the wearer from injuries, illness, evil spirits, witchcraft, or other misfortunes. The Wolof villager does not see any contradiction between his or her adherence to Islam and a continuing adherence to many traditional (i.e. pre-Islamic) magico-religious beliefs and practices. In fact, probably even the practice of circumcision is pre-Islamic, since it is traditionally performed by a blacksmith, and the ritual specialist who is in charge of a group of boys scheduled for circumcision occupies a completely non-Islamic role. Each village usually has several traditional ritual specialists. Some specialize in the treatment of snake bites, others in the treatment of mental illness, and so forth. One of the most prominent traditional ritual roles is that of the jabarkat. This person is a combination magician, shaman, and sorcerer. Just as the marabout, he is frequently called upon to make protective amulets, but in this case the amulets contain pieces of roots or plants rather than passages from the Koran. Finally, the traditional system emphasizes beliefs in evil spirits and witches, and the need to protect oneself from the harm they may do. A great deal of anxiety and fear is associated with these beliefs, and they constitute the most emotionally "loaded" aspect of Wolof culture. Gamble (1957) is a general survey of Wolof history and culture based mostly on the literature, but including some of his own data from fieldwork in The Gambia. This is still a useful introduction to Wolof ethnography. Irvine (1974) is another of the most important studies available on the Wolof. She focuses on a sociolinguistic analysis of caste and communication in a Wolof village called Ker Matar (a pseudonym) located in the southern Cayor of Senegal. In the process, she also manages to present a fairly comprehensive village ethnography. Culture summary by Robert O. Lagace Gamble, David P. The Wolof of Senegambia, together with notes on the Lebu and the Serer. London, International African Institute, 1957. 110 p. illus., maps. Greenberg, Joseph H. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, Indiana University, 1966. Greenfield, Patricia Marks. On culture and conservation. In Jerome S. Bruner, et al. Studies in Cognitive Growth; a Collaboration at the Center for Cognitive Studies. New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1966A: 225-256, 327-334. Greenfield, Patricia Marks. On culture and equivalence: II. By Patricia Marks Greenfield, Lee C. Reich, and Rose R. Oliver. In Jerome S. Bruner, et al. Studies in Cognitive Growth; a Collaboration at the Center for Cognitive Studies. New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1966B: 270-318. Irvine, Judith Temkin. Caste and communication in a Wolof village. Ann Arbor, University Microfilms, 1974. 1, 66, 484 l. maps, tables. (University Microfilms Publications, no. 74-14,082) Dissertation (Anthropology)University of Pennsylvania, 1973. Nelson, Harold D. Area handbook for Senegal. By Harold D. Nelson et al. 2d ed. Washington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, 1974. Pelissier, Paul. Les paysans du Senegal: les civilisations agraires du Cayor a la Casamance [The peasants of Senegal: the agrarian civilizations from the Cayor to the Casamance]. Saint-Yrieux (Haute-Vienne), Imprimerie Fabregue, 1966. Voegelin, C. F. and F. M. Voegelin. Classification and index of the world's languages. New York, Elsevier, 1977. 7882
