41. Ancient_3 (ce.eng.usf.edu); philon of byzantium wrote, I have seen the walls and HangingGardens of ancient Babylon, the statue of Olympian Zeus, the Colossus of http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0311400/Ancient_Wonders/ancient_3.htm

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus Characteristics Technology Wonder Qualities Ancient Characteristics Built by Croesus (last king of Lydia) City had been founded thousands of years before by Amazons (race of woman warriors) Made in honor of the goddess of the moon and protector of animals and young girls (Greeks called her Artemis; Romans called her Diana) Made of limestone and marble Supported by 120 marble columns (each 66 ft high) S tatue of Artemis in middle of temple All that is left is a few foundation blocks and a single rebuilt column Return Technology Temple designed by Charsiphron and Matagenes, his son The temple was finished in about 550 BCE After being burned on July 21, 356 BCE, the temple was restored Fire started by Herostratus, who wanted to be famous Burned the same day Alexander the Great was born Years later Alexander called for temple to be rebuilt on same site In the 262 CE, temple was plundered by Goths and later swamped by floods

42. Cybernetics Prehistory: Regulation In Machines a water clock circa 270 BC, and another Greek named philon of byzantium useda float regulator to keep the level of oil in a lamp constant circa 250 BC. http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/foundations/history/prehistory1.htm

Cybernetics ... "the science and art of understanding" - Humberto Maturana "interfaces hard competence with the hard problems of the soft sciences" - Heinz von Foerster AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CYBERNETICS We stand ASC HOME FOUNDATIONS Pre-History of Cybernetics on the shoulders of giants BACK: History THEME: Control and Regulation in Machines Learning about Regulation through Practical Applications Control and regulation were indeed focal topics in the research being done by the people who first defined the field. However, interest and work on these topics dates back as far as historical records permit us to see. The earliest tangible work on control was motivated by practical concerns. There were devices whose operation and maintenance could be simplified by imposing capacities for automatic regulation. We know that self-regulating devices were constructed far back in ancient times. A Greek named Ktesibios in Alexandria invented a float regulator for a water clock circa 270 BC, and another Greek named Philon of Byzantium used a float regulator to keep the level of oil in a lamp constant circa 250 BC. By the time of the first century AD, float regulators and similar devices had been employed for a variety of applications such as: self-closing cisterns, automatic wine dispensers, syphons to maintain constant water level differences between two vessels, and (semi-)automated operation of temple doors. For the next thousand years, such devices would continue to be designed to exploit physical phenomena such as water flow, buoyancy, and magnetism. Around 1100 AD a south-pointing compass was linked to the wheels of a chariot so as to keep the vehicle steered southward. During the European Dark Ages, more sophisiticated float regulators continued to be developed in the Arab Empire. By the 13th century Arab craftsmen had added rudimentary 'on/off' switching and refined float regulators to produce remarkably accurate clocks.

43. ASC: Foundations: History: Timeline philon of byzantium uses a float regulator to keep a constant level of oil in alamp (ca. 250 BC); The Greek philosopher Chrysippus is credited with http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/foundations/timeline.htm

Cybernetics ... "the science and art of understanding" - Humberto Maturana "interfaces hard competence with the hard problems of the soft sciences" - Heinz von Foerster AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CYBERNETICS We stand ASC HOME FOUNDATIONS History of Cybernetics on the shoulders of giants BACK: History A Timeline for the Evolution of Cybernetics ON THIS PAGE: Prehistory Historical Era The Future Other Relevant Timelines One good way of obtaining a historical overview of a discipline is to review a summary outline of its evolution. This page offers a summary timeline of events relevant to cybernetics. Unfortunately, assembling a linear timeline for cybernetics is not as straightforward as is the case for other disciplines. Cybernetics precipitated out of diverse threads of work fortuitously intersecting during the 1940's. In the ensuing decades, the themes circumscribing cybernetics' original definition diverged again to engender or facilitate the rise of an even greater diversity of fields, labels, and disciplines. The timeline below is derived from a number of reference sources. It is deliberately intended to reflect at least a sample of the many subjects and disciplines from which cybernetics descended and into which its themes subsequently flowed. In the early stages, this timeline focuses on the theme of control. As it approaches the 20th century, it begins to reflect developments in fields such as philosophy, biology, mathematics, etc.

44. MuslimHeritage.com - Topics Automatic Control Technology had as a basis the Greek Technology of twoscientists namely philon of byzantium (Rhodes and Alexandria) of the second half http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=285

45. N7w: Origins Origins. The commonlyknown Seven Ancient Wonders of the World were all man-mademonuments, selected by philon of byzantium in 200 BC. http://cms.n7w.com/index.php?id=8

46. N7w: Athens 2004 Bernard Weber, founder and chairman of New7Wonders said philon of byzantium sdeclaration of the Ancient Seven Wonders of the World was actually the first http://cms.n7w.com/athens.php

Home Vote here! Origins N7W Club ... Click here Athens 2004 TV Coverage CNN RTNET RTNET In August 2004, during the Olympic Games, New7Wonders paid tribute to the world's biggest sporting event, and honoured the city which gave birth to the Seven Wonders concept in 200 B.C. After launching the N7W helium balloons votes were cast at the House of Switzerland by (from top left clock wise): Mr. Pierre Monod, Swiss Ambassador to Greece, Bernard Weber, Founder of N7W, Fotini the girl from the SOS-Village who extinguished the Olympic flame and Kostas, Paris Koromaris our Media Relation person, Jean-Paul de la Fuente, N7W Head of Value Development and his wife Joanna, Eddie Fennings, Head of British Telecom Solutions and his wife Michele. Bernard Weber, founder and chairman of N7W, flew the specially-designed N7W hot air balloon over the Acropolis.  It marked N7W's presence at this major, international, occasion, encouraging people from all over the world to participate in the choice of the New Seven Wonders. Patrik Schmidle, Captain and Bernard Weber above the Acropolis. The picture in the middle shows the dimension and size of the N7W balloons envelope! It also acknowledged a monument which was not included in the ancient choice of Wonders, because the originator was Athenian and only chose monuments outside his own city.

47. Colossus Of Rhodes According to the book of philon of byzantium, 15 tons of bronze were used and 9tons of iron, though these numbers seem low. The Statue of Liberty, http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Landmarks/Colossus.htm

Colossus of Rhodes The island of Rhodes was an important economic center in the ancient world. It is located off the southwestern tip of Asia Minor where the Aegean Sea meets the Mediterranean. The capitol city, also named Rhodes, was built in 408 BC and was designed to take advantage of the island's best natural harbor on the northern coast. The island of Rhodes, in the Eastern Mediterranean, was frequently attacked by navies of rival islands, and one siege by the Greeks in the end of the fourth century BC dragged on for a year before the Greeks finally abandoned their attack and left the citizens of Rhodes in peace. Wishing to celebrate this victory, the citizens of Rhodes chose to build a giant statue of Helos, their God of the Sun and protector. Using in part the bronze from weapons and hardware left by the Greeks, they commissioned a huge bronze sculpture, with a wooden structural support inside, that would stand over a hundred feet high. It was completed in 280 BC. The Statue, which was about 32 meters high was considered one of the seven wonders of the world stood for only a little more than 50 years before it was destroyed in an earthquake and laid with his face in the sand for centuries after. "Even as it lies," wrote Pliny, "it excites our wonder and admiration. Few men can clasp the thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most statues. Where the limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are seen yawning in the interior. Within it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by the weight of which the artist steadied it while erecting it." It is said that an Egyptian king offered to pay for its reconstruction, but the Rhodians refused. They feared that somehow the statue had offended the god Helios, who used the earthquake to throw it down. In the seventh century AD the Arabs conquered Rhodes and broke the remains of the Colossus up into smaller pieces and sold it as scrap metal. Legend says it took

48. The Seven Wonders Of The World Bought To You By The Cleveleys Website Antipater of Sidon, and philon of byzantium, drew up two of the most wellknownlists. Many of the lists agreed on six of the seven items. http://www.cleveleys.co.uk/wonders/sevenwondersoftheworld.htm

The ancient Greeks loved to compile lists of the marvellous structures in their world. Though we think of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World as a single list today, there were actually a number of lists compiled by different Greek writers. Antipater of Sidon , and Philon of Byzantium , drew up two of the most well-known lists. Many of the lists agreed on six of the seven items. The final place on some lists was awarded to the Walls of the City of Babylon . On others, the Palace of Cyrus , king of Persia took the seventh position. Finally, toward the 6th century A.D., the final item became the Lighthouse at Alexandria . Since the it was Greeks who made the lists it is not unusual that many of the items on them were examples of Greek culture. The writers might have listed the Great Wall of China if then had known about it, or Stonehenge if they'd seen it, but these places were beyond the limits of their world. It is a surprise to most people to learn that not all the Seven Wonders existed at the same time. Even if you lived in ancient times you would have still needed a time machine to see all seven. While the Great Pyramids of Egypt was built centuries before the rest and is still around today (it is the only "wonder" still intact) most of the others only survived a few hundred years or less.

49. A Brief History Of Feedback Control - Chapter 1 A float regulator was used by philon of byzantium in 250 to keep a constantlevel of oil in a lamp. During the first century AD Heron of Alexandria http://www.theorem.net/theorem/lewis1.html

50. Trebuchet: Defense Against The Catapult philon of byzantium. Before describing the contents of Philon s masterpieceMechanics let us give some small details of Philon s life which can be deduced http://web.grinnell.edu/techstudies/vick/cat_def.html

Defense Against Catapult Castles There are three types fortifications: field fortifications, continuous barriers and castles. Field fortifications were the simplest: "Originally such fortifications may have been derived from hunting, where various devices were used since prehistoric times to trap animals and to limit their movements..."[ Van Creveld 25 ] Field fortifications were mostly temporary structures, and did not withstand attacks any better than one might expect of hasty works. Continuous barriers, such as Hadrian's Wall and the Great Wall of China were stronger but required far more resources. "It [required] managerial and organizational skills and resources, and the ability to put thousands and even tens of thousands of men to work in a purposeful, coordinated fashion while simultaneously keeping them fed, clothed, housed, and policed... It was a question of pouring sweat in order to save blood. "[ Van Creveld 26-7 ] Niether of these types of fortification were effective against artillery, which led to the creation of the third type of fortification, the castle. Rather than trying to protect an entire region, it was far more reasonable to concentrate defenses on a single point. "However great the superiority that an invader enjoyed in the field, and however numerous his victories in battle, a country was not really occupied until its fortresses had been reduced."[ Van Creveld 28 Figure 1.

51. Trebuchet: Bibliography O Connor, JJ and Robertson, EF philon of byzantium. History of Mathematics.April 1999. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, http://web.grinnell.edu/techstudies/vick/bibliography.html

Bibliography Contamine, Phillipe. War in the Middle Ages . Translated by Michael Jones. New York: Basil Blackwell Inc., 1985 Van Creveld, Martin L. Technology and War . New York: Macmillan, Inc., 1989 Marsden, E. W. Greek and Roman Artillery . London: Oxford University Press, 1969 Montross, Lynn. War Through the Ages Rowlett, Russ. "Volume T." How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement Rowlett, Russ. "Volume M." How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement Catapult History "Biffa." Les Amis de Larressingle - The city of Medieval Machines Dawson, David. "The English Medieval Castle." The Development of the English Castle "Roman Catapults: The Onager." The Catapult Museum Online O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. "Philon of Byzantium." History of Mathematics Miners, Russell. "Historic Trebuchet Illustrations Part 2." Grey Company Trebuchet Page To the Index

52. Philon's Line philon of byzantium , sometimes called Philo, was a lessor known scientist/mathematicianliving around 280 BC. One of his projects in geomery was the http://www.pballew.net/Philo.html

Philon's Line Philon of Byzantium , sometimes called Philo, was a lessor known scientist/mathematician living around 280 BC.  One of his projects in geomery was the ancient problem of making a cube with twice the volume of a given cube.  In trying to solve the problem, he encountered and solved the following problem: Given an angle BAC and a point X, interior to the angle, find the shortest line segment through X reaching from ray AC to ray AB.  (see figure) Philon's discovery was that the shortest segment occurred when the distance from the point X to one ray was equal to the distance from the other ray to the foot (G in the figure) of the perpendicular  to the segment from A .    Philon's only surviving work is his treatise on mechanics.  It appears that he travelled throughout the Eastern Mediterranean studying the construction of catapults.  He may have been a militrary advisor of some sort.  He is mentioned in the writings of Heron of Alexandria.  You can find more about his life at the St Andrews University web site.

53. Working Water An earlier Greek inventor, philon of byzantium (3rd century BC), tells us thatthe drive shaft was facetted (polygonal, not circular, in crosssection), http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/MOLsite/learning/features_facts/roman_london_4.

Home Roman London / Working Water Sitemap Help Home General ... User survey Email to a friend Half a million years of history for you to discover Working Water enlarge image Testing a prototype wheel: Engineer Tony Taylor (left) monitors the rate of discharge, 2002 EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY A dig at 30 Gresham Street in London unearthed long sections of a Roman bucket-chain for lifting water. From these sections we were able to build a working water-lifting device. But how did we go from these fragments to the reconstruction of a complete machine? What the ancient writers say The Roman architect Vitruvius, who wrote between BC31 and AD14, was clearly familiar with machines like the London one. He says that if engineers need to raise water from a deep well a double iron chain will be set up ... with buckets suspended from it. Thus the turning of the wheel ... will carry the buckets to the top, and as they are borne over the wheel, they will necessarily ... pour the water into a reservoir. An earlier Greek inventor, Philon of Byzantium (3rd century BC), tells us that the drive shaft was facetted (polygonal, not circular, in cross-section), and that the chain links were shaped to fit the facets. Vitruvius and other Graeco-Roman engineers have provided descriptions of the treadwheels and other devices that were used to power machinery of this type. Other archaeological finds Astonishingly, the Gresham Street bucket-chain that was used for the reconstruction is one of just four discovered in London. But not only is it the most complete, it is the most sophisticated - and probably the latest in date, having been constructed in, or shortly after, AD108-9. Another chain was found in a smaller, earlier well on the Gresham Street site itself; a second just to the south by a public bath-house; and a third on the north bank of the Thames near London Bridge. No other Roman bucket-chains have been found outside the Mediterranean.

54. Small Wonders Approximately two thousand years ago, philon of byzantium (presentday Istanbul,Turkey) compiled a list considered by the Ancient Romans to be the seven http://utahbooks.com/small_wonders.htm

SMALL WONDERS SMALL WONDERS A Personal Journey to the Wonders of the World Choose where to buy online ChangingHands.com BarnesNoble.com Amazon US Amazon UK ... Amazon Canada or call Publisher 1 800 360-5284. Click cover for larger image. You may also order this book through your local book store with ISBN number. Compiled by Alan Blain Cunningham Agreka™ Books ISBN 1-888106-63-8 Library of Congress 2003107204 Introduction About the Author Great Pyramid Crazy Horse ... Photos Click cover for full image. Cover art by Alan Cunningham. Join the world traveler author on a personal journey to the Seven Natural Wonders of the world and to the Seven Man-made Wonders NATURAL WONDERS • Amazonia. • Angel Falls • Ayers Rock • Blue Grotto • Grand Canyon and More • Victoria Falls • Rainbow Bridge MAN-MADE WONDERS • Crazy Horse • Empire State Building • Golden Gate Bridge • Great Wall of China • Machu Picchu • Petra • Taj Mahal Throughout my life I have been intrigued by the Wonders of the World. Commonly there are seven listed wonders each in the categories of ancient, man-made, and natural. Of the seven ancient wonders only the Great Pyramid in Egypt still remains. After graduating from veterinary school I was fortunate enough to visit many of the world's wonders. And I realized how small and universal the world really is. I also learned that basically most people are good and want the same thing – to be happy, healthy, and to be treated decently and fairly.

55. Seven Wonders Of The World BC) at the Museum of Alexandria, and the engineer philon of byzantium had madeearlier lists but the writings have not survived, except as references. http://pedia.newsfilter.co.uk/wikipedia/s/se/seven_wonders_of_the_world.html

newsfilter.co.uk encyclopedia Main Page See live article Alphabetical index guidething - online travel guide Seven Wonders of the World The seven wonders of the world are usually taken to be the seven wonders of the ancient world , which are structures built by humans which represent the finest achievements by civilization. The originator of the list is usually given as Antipater of Sidon , who listed the structures in a poem (around 140 BC "I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, 'Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught so grand.'" (Antipater, Greek Anthology IX.58) The historian Herodotus , the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene (ca 240 BC ) at the Museum of Alexandria , and the engineer Philon of Byzantium had made earlier lists but the writings have not survived, except as references. The Greek category was not "Wonders" but "

56. Zeus Heaven twice as large as the Parthenon in Athens and had sculpted bases on each ofit s 127, 20 meter high columns philon of byzantium writes of the result http://zeus.heavengames.com/misc/7wonders/artemis.shtml

Patches Zeus Poseidon News Current news Archives Submit news Forums ... Gallery Game Info Zeus Walkthroughs Poseidon Walkthroughs Walkers Buildings ... Bugs? Scen Design General Overview Parent Cities Colonies Establishing Goals ... Beta Testing Links Fansites Reviews Previews Misc The Beauty of Rabble Housing Block Generator Poseidon Screens ... History Staff Jayhawk Reckless Rodent Granite Q Nero Would The Temple Artemis at Ephesus In what must be one my favourite sites in the Ancient World, Ephesus stood another of the Seven Wonders: The Temple of Artemis. The story goes that around 1100AD a crusader visited Ephesus and looking at the swampy village asked the locals where the bay was? The habour? Where the temple had gone? The locals looked at him and asked: "What temple?" And indeed, when I visited the ruins almost nine centuries later, the bay had silted up and the city of Ephesus was located some 3 kilometers inland, the old harbour buildings bordering a flat plain of rich loam. Almost 3,000 years ago, Ephesus was a small village in Asia Minor. It's inhabitants worshiped Artemis. This goddess wasn't the Greek virgin goddess of hunt, but an older earth mother type fertility goddess, who's statues carried a large necklace of what could be either eggs or....

57. HERO (THE YOUNGER) - LoveToKnow Article On HERO (THE YOUNGER) the Pneumatica and Automata, the fragment on Water Clocks, the De ingeniisspiritualibus of philon of byzantium and extracts on Pneumatics by Vitruvius. http://58.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HERO_THE_YOUNGER_.htm

HERO (THE YOUNGER) whom the wonderful horse Bayard was ptesented by Charlemagne; the traitor Doon of Mayence; Ganelon., responsible for the treachery that led to the death of Roland; Archbishop Turpin, a typical specimen of muscular Christianity; William Fierabras, William au court nez, William of Toulouse, and William of Orange (all probably identical), and Vivien, the nephew of the latter and the hero of Aliscans. The late Charlemagne romances originated the legends, in English form, of Sowdone of Babylone, Sir Otnel, Sir Firumbras and Huon of Bordeaux (in which Oberon, the king of the fairies, the son of Julius Caesar and Morgan the Fay, was first made known to England). The chief remains of the Spanish heroic epic are some poems on the Cid, on the seven Infantes of Lara, and on Fernn Gonzalez, count of Castile. The legend of Charlemagne as told in the CrOnica general of Alfonso X. created the desire for a national hero distinguished for his exploits against the Moors, and Roland was thus supplanted by Bernardo del Carpio. Another famous hero and centre of a 14th-century cycle of romance was Amadis of Gaul; its earliest form is Spanish, although the Portuguese have claimed it as a translation from their own language. There is no trace of a French original. AuTrioRITias.On the subject generally, see J. G. T. Grgsse, Die grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters (Dresden, 1842), forming part of his Lehrbuch elner Literar~eschicbte de, beruhmtesten Volker des MittelaJiers; W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (2nd ed., 1908). TEUToNIc.B. Symons, Germanische Heldensage in H. Pauls Grundris der germanisehen Philologie, iii. (Strassburg, 1900), 2nd revised edition, separately printed (ib., 1905); W. Grimm, Die deutsche Heldensage (1829, 3rd ed., 1889), still one of the most important works; W. Muller, Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage (Heilbronn, 1886) and supplement, Zur Mythologie der griechischen ufid deutschen Heldensage (ib., 1889) 0. L. Jiriczek, Deutsche Heldensagen, i. (Strassburg, 1898) and Die deutsche Heldensage (3rd revised edition, Leipzig, 1906); Chantepie de la Saussaye, The Religion of the Teutons (Eng. tr., Boston, U.S.A., 1902); J. G. Robertson, History of German Literature (1902). See also HELDENBUCH.

58. Welcome To Engineering Expo! Few think of Heron of Alexandria or philon of byzantium. These engineers madegreat contributions to ancient civilizations. http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~expo/school/competitions.html

Your browser does not support script Competitions Check in at the Competition Registration Booth and then proceed to the competition site to be given a competition time. Be sure to return to the competition location five minutes prior to your scheduled competition time. Please be aware that registration for competitions will not be accepted the day of Expo. Pre-registration for all contests except Engineering Expression was March 11th. Auto Putt (6th - 12th grade) Many people identify with sports, but don’t always think about the engineering behind them. Engineers are always thinking of ways to make people jump higher or hit farther. Engineers have even begun finding ways for people, previously unable to enjoy sports to participate in these activities. Teams are asked to design and build a portable miniature golfing device. This device will be displayed on our own miniature golf course. Please read the rules for this competition and fill out the entry form that must accompany all entries. Please bring the completed entry form to the competition on April 15, 2005. View the results of the competition.

59. Philon Antipater of Sidon Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia articleHe and the mathematician and engineer philon of byzantium (born about 280 BC)are known as the most famous observers of the Seven Wonders. http://turnbull.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Philon.html

Philon of Byzantium Born: about 280 BC in Byzantium (Turkey) Died: about 220 BC Previous (Chronologically) Next Biographies Index Previous (Alphabetically) Next Main index Version for printing Only a few references to Philon of Byzantium exist in the literature. He is mentioned by Vitruvius who was a Roman architect and engineer. Vitruvius (1 st century BC) was the author of the famous treatise De architectura (On Architecture) and in this work he gives a list of twelve inventors of machines which include Archytas (second in the list), Archimedes (third in the list), Ctesibius (fourth in the list), and Philon of Byzantium (sixth in the list). Heron of Alexandria mentions a work by Philon On automatic theatres which in fact forms part of his Mechanics treatise. Eutocius also mentions Philon and cites a work by him on the duplication of the cube and this material is again contained in his Mechanics treatise. Perhaps the most information about Philon's life, and this is very little indeed, comes from the only work of his which has survived (at least major parts have survived) Mechanics.

60. Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005.07.63 Our only clue as to the weight of catapult springs (as Marsden realised) comesfrom philon of byzantium, who records that the springs of a stoneprojector http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2005/2005-07-63.html

Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005.07.63 David Whitehead, P.H. Blyth, Athenaeus Mechanicus, On Machines. Historia-Einzelschrift, 182 Reviewed by Duncan B. Campbell, Glasgow (duncanbcampbell@hotmail.com) Word count: 2058 words discussion quickly became the preserve of German scholars, partly owing to the compilation of the all-encompassing (1894-1980). Indeed, as recently as the 1980s, it seemed that the late Otto Lendle had effectively uttered the last word with his ingenious interpretations of Athenaeus and the other Poliorketiker . So this volume marks not only a welcome return to Athenaean studies, but indeed a debut for Anglophone research. helepolis of Epimachus; and how the device known as the protrochos was meant to work. It must be stated at the outset that the entire volume is a joy to read. Both writers have prior experience of editing a poliorcetic text, so they can be trusted to have pondered the genre in some depth. modioli terminus post quem ballista , not to the arrow-shooting catapulta ; and thirdly, archaeological evidence gathered over the last thirty years demonstrates that such an improvement was never applied to the arrow-shooter, all of which means that the Ampurias evidence is irrelevant.

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