41. (Una Quinta Dimensión Y Más Allá) Translate this page en el marco de la relatividad general de Einstein, theodor kaluza. kaluza demostró que esta libertad de movimiento adicional asociada a una simetría http://www.astrocosmo.cl/h-foton/h-foton-12_05-02-01.htm

L A U NIFICACIÓN DE LA G RAVEDAD U na de las características más evidente de nuestro mundo físico y que prácticamente a nadie le llama la atención es la tridimensionalidad del espacio. En la teoría de la relatividad especial de Einstein, el espacio y el tiempo pasan a estar tan íntimamente entrelazados que Hermann Minkowski consiguió demostrar que en ella el tiempo podía considerarse una cuarta dimensión (aunque no sea una dimensión espacial). Nadie tiene la menor idea de por qué el mundo en que vivimos tiene una dimensión temporal y tres espaciales y no, por ejemplo, once dimensiones. Por supuesto, el mundo sería muy distinto si alterásemos su dimensionalidad. Quizá las dimensiones superiores sean fatales para la vida y debamos agradecer nuestra modesta asignación de cuatro. Las tres dimensiones espaciales observadas son dimensiones «grandes»: podemos caminar por ellas. Si existieran dimensiones adicionales, no deberían ser como las «tres grandes»; si lo fuesen, también podríamos caminar por ellas, lo cual choca claramente con la experiencia. Las dimensiones extra que contemplan los físicos son dimensiones «pequeñas», tanto que no pueden verse, y por ello no influyen directamente en nuestra perspectiva tridimensional del mundo. ¿Qué son dimensiones «pequeñas»? Para entender lo que son dimensiones «pequeñas», imaginemos un mundo con una sola dimensión «grande». El espacio de este mundo unidimensional estaría representado por una línea infinitamente larga. Imaginemos luego que esa línea se apoya en la superficie de un cilindro, de forma que el espacio completo está ya representado por la superficie bidimensional del cilindro. La segunda dimensión «extra» corresponde a andar alrededor del cilindro. Si lo hacemos, volvemos al punto de partida: la dimensión extra es un círculo, no una línea.

42. Kaluza-Klein Theory - Definition Of Kaluza-Klein Theory In Encyclopedia It was discovered by the mathematician theodor kaluza that if general relativityis extended to a fivedimensional spacetime, the equations can be separated http://encyclopedia.laborlawtalk.com/Kaluza-Klein_theory

Add to Favorites General Encyclopedia Legal ... Law forum Search Word: Visit our Law forums Labor Law Accidents Law Bankruptcy Law Business Law ... Tax Law Kaluza-Klein theory (or KK theory , for short) is a model which sought to unify classical gravity and electromagnetism . It was discovered by the mathematician Theodor Kaluza that if general relativity is extended to a five-dimensional spacetime, the equations can be separated out into ordinary four-dimensional gravitation plus an extra set, which is equivalent to Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field , plus an extra scalar field known as the " dilaton Oskar Klein proposed that the fourth spatial dimension is curled up in a circle of very small radius , i.e. that a particle moving a short distance along that axis would return to where it began. The distance a particle can travel before reaching its initial position is said to be the size of the dimension. This, in fact, also gives rise to quantization of charge , as waves directed along a finite axis can only occupy discrete frequencies. (This occurs because electromagnetism is a U(1) symmetry theory and U(1) is simply the group of rotations around a circle Kaluza-Klein theory can be extended to cover the other fundamental forces - namely, the

43. Extra Dimensions In Cosmology at small scales was made by mathematician theodor kaluza in 1919. What didkaluza mean when he suggested that the universe might contain an extra, http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~mbw/astro18200/dimensions.html

Origin and Evolution of the Universe Extra Dimensions Figure 1: An extra-dimensional form: the Calabi-Yau space. If modern physics has taught us anything, it is that our normal intuition of how the universe works cannot be trusted. A perfect example is Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, which states that the speed of light is the only constant, length and time can vary, and our notion of the simultaneity of two events is incorrect. Another example is quantum mechanics, which says that properties of an object such as momentum and position cannot be determined precisely, only probabilistically. A concept regarding the structure of the universe that again opposes our instincts is that of extra dimensions. Contents: What is a dimension? What about four dimensions? ...or five? What are extra dimensions? Why are extra dimensions important? ... References What is a dimension? To be precise, "the dimension of an object is a topological measure of the size of its covering properties." (Weisstein) Fortunately, this can be explained in simpler terms that correspond with our everyday experience. Imagine a line, which we will call one-dimensional. We can identify each point on the line with exactly one number or coordinate. For a plane, which is two-dimensional, each point needs two coordinates for identification. For the three-dimensional space that we are most familiar with, each point has 3 coordinates. The dimension of a space can thus be thought of as the number of coordinates needed to specify the location of a point in that space.

44. GNN Profile: Schneibster a mathematical physicist named theodor kaluza came up with a theory that To do this, kaluza proposed an additional dimension, and he was able to http://schneibster.gnn.tv/

content new all articles headlines videos links ... GNN STORE Buy GNN's award-winning DVDs TRUE LIES The GNN Book "Inflammatory" - NY Observer Sign up for the GNN newsletter to get the first word on video premieres and breaking news. Check out the GNN 2.0 blog to get the latest news about site updates and features. Read the GNN FAQ for information about the site, forum rules and other GNN 2.0 information. Optimized for FireFox To download the Firefox web browser, visit mozilla.com Schneibster rank: Conscript points: occupation: Computer Programmer location: Seattle, US I was born. I grew up; my growing pains were primarily due to my rebellious nature. I hacked. Now I play with software for a living. I go looking for sea otters to photograph when I get the opportunity, and miss my old home on the California Central Coast. currently reading: Quantum Field Theory: A Modern Introduction , Michio Kaku Lectures on Physics , Richard Feynman The Selfish Gene , Richard Dawkins A Matter Of Gravity , Hal Clement Sailing Bright Eternity , Gregory Benford currently watching: Star Trek Enterprise The Sci-Fi channel (who have managed to catch my interest with a new crop of shows) The bond market The housing market currently listening to: Dinosaur rock Jazz- mostly Ritenour and Carlton, but I have eclectic tastes too- Bela Fleck for instance.

45. SLIDE 109 kaluza, theodor. sitz. Berlin Preuss. Adad. Wiss. 966, 1921. 6. Klein, O., Z.Phys. 37, 895, 1928. 7. Misner, Thorne and Wheeler. Gravitation. http://www.cheniere.org/books/ferdelance/s109.htm

46. Search For Extra Dimensions Using Missing Energy At CDF In the beggining of the 20th century Gunnar Nordstrom, theodor kaluza and OscarKlein independently proposed an extension of Einstein s newly invented http://www-cdf.fnal.gov/PES/kkgrav/kkgrav.html

Search for Extra Dimensions using Missing Energy at CDF From the th dimension of the 1920's to the n th dimension of 2000 Figure 1 A couple of years ago Nima Arkani-Hamed, Savas Dimopoulos and Gia Dvali [2] worked through the same idea. Namely that there can be more than 3 spatial dimensions and the extra dimensions can be curled up and thus compactified around circles (Figure 1) so that we cannot feel them and the compactification radius size is small enough that we have not measured them. The authors pointed out that we had not measured the gravitational force law at distances less than a millimeter (at that time). Thus if there were extra curled up dimensions that only affected gravity, they could be as large as a millimeter! When we read their paper in Nov 98, a bunch of us experimentalists were stunned by the fact that there might be extra-dimensions-induced modifications of gravity competing with Van-der-Waals and Casimir forces at the sub-millimeter scale. The world we are able to see and measure today is confined on a 4 dimensional wall. Gravity exists in a 4+ n "bulk" where

47. Strings To Branes: Information From Answers.com In 1919 theodor kaluza had found a way to derive electromagnetism from Einstein stheory of general relativity, but kaluza s derivation requires five http://www.answers.com/topic/strings-to-branes

showHide_TellMeAbout2('false'); Business Entertainment Games Health ... More... On this page: Essay Mentioned In Or search: - The Web - Images - News - Blogs - Shopping Strings to branes Essay Strings to branes When people first began thinking about quarks, a persistent question was why isolated quarks had not been observed. One idea was that quarks might be the ends of strings. If a particle was a string and the quarks were just the ends of the string, then it could be understood why one never found one quark without another. This idea did not gain much acceptance, but strings soon took on a life of their own. A string is essentially a one-dimensional object in a space of four dimensions (counting time as a dimension). Physicists in 1970 turned to topology, the mathematics of knots and surfaces, to find what the implications might be of using strings instead of particles in their calculations. Surprisingly, strings simplified calculations. But some string theories had far too many dimensions 26 in one version. At about the same time, physicists working with other mathematical theories of particles and forces rediscovered an idea from the 1920s. In 1919 Theodor Kaluza had found a way to derive electromagnetism from Einstein's theory of general relativity, but Kaluza's derivation requires five dimensions and we only observe four. In 1926 Oskar Klein developed an explanation of why the fifth dimension is invisible it curls up into a tiny circle but very few people were impressed.

48. Symmetry - December 2004/January 2005 - Signal To Background theodor kaluza and Oskar Klein, working independently, sought to unify Einstein sgravity with Maxwell s electromagnetism through the introduction of a http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000043

49. Explanation Of Hyperspace In A Simplified Form In 1919, theodor kaluza, building upon relativity, made an astounding discoverylight and gravity can be unified and expressed with identical mathematics. http://fimenet.8m.com/hyperspace.htm

Explanation of Hyperspace in a Simplified Form Courtesy of Brown University Hyperspace Theory (also called Superstring or Supergravity Theory ) begins with Einstein's General Relativity . In 1919, Theodor Kaluza , building upon relativity, made an astounding discovery: light and gravity can be unified and expressed with identical mathematics. This was the beginning of the unification of all physical laws, which is the ultimate goal of physics. There was only one catch. He needed an extra dimension. This fifth dimension , long recognized as mathematically plausible, had never before been seriously proposed as an actual component of reality. The usefulness of his theory was hard to deny; in five dimensions, there is "enough room" to accomplish the unification of gravity and light, which simply cannot be accomplished when trapped in four dimensional spacetime. There is an obvious question to be asked at this point. "Where is the fifth dimension?" Kaluza's answer is clever, though suspiciously hard to test. He said that the fifth dimension is too small to see. The fifth dimension is contiguous with our four, but it is curled up, while the others are extended. To understand curled-up dimensions, imagine an ant living on a string (or a Linelander). For all its life, it is only aware of two directions: forward and backward. It lives in a one-dimensional universe. However, if you examine the string very closely, you find that it has a circumference; an extra dimension, curled up and wrapped back onto itself into a circle. If you could stretch this dimension, that is, make the circumference very large, the ant would be living on the two-dimensional surface of a cylinder. But when it's curled up, it effectively is undetectable by the ant, though it may serve as a medium for vibrations or other physical effects.

50. The Great Beyond : Higher Dimensions, Parallel Universes And The Extraordinary S Valentine Bargmann, Peter Bergmann, Richard Feynman, theodor kaluza, Oskar Klein and theodor kaluza made higher dimensions an integral part of their http://www.2think.org/beyond.shtml

Paul Halpern - The Great Beyond "Except for the agreement with reality, it is in any case a grand intellectual achievement." (Einstein, as quoted on page 98) The Great Beyond was a surprise to me. It was surprisingly well written and a surprise in terms of subject matter. I was expecting something along the lines of The Search for Superstrings, Symmetry, and the Theory of Everything or one of the other treatments of a theory of everything. Originally, mostly because of the cover, I put it under the Astronomy/Cosmology category. After reading it I've also put it under Physics, Popular Science, and History of Science. It is this last category that it probably fits best under. I was tempted to also include it in the category of Biography as this history of science includes sometimes brief, and sometimes not so brief, biographies of the players including Albert Einstein , Valentine Bargmann, Peter Bergmann, Richard Feynman , Theodor Kaluza, Oskar Klein, Niels Bohr, Carl Gauss, James Maxwell, Edward Witten, and moremany more in fact. This is the book's strength; some may say it is its weakness. Why is it a possible weakness? The characters make the book interesting and readable. However, by focusing on the history and the key individuals involved, the theories are glossed over. Those of us who wouldn't really grasp the theories even if they were described in more detail are left thanking Halpern for sparing us. Others may want more meat. The more meatier readings are left up to the reader to pursue in a 5 page Further Reading section located near the back of the book.

51. A Timeline Of Mathematics And Theoretical Physics 1921, theodor kaluza follows Einstein s advice and publishes his highly unorthodoxideas about unifying gravity with electromagnetism by adding an extra http://superstringtheory.com/history/history3.html

The Official String Theory Web Site History before 1800 / 1900 until today) Max Planck makes his quantum hypothesis that energy is carried by indistinguishable units called quanta , rather than flowing in a pure continuum. This hypothesis leads to a successful derivation of the black body radiation law, now called Planck's Law, although in 1901 the quantum hypothesis as yet had no experimental support. The unit of quantum action is now called Planck's constant. Swiss patent clerk Albert Einstein proposes Planck's quantum hypothesis as the physics underlying the photoelectric effect. Planck wins the Nobel Prize in 1918, and Einstein in 1921, for developing quantum theory, one of the two most important developments in 20th century physics. Einstein publishes his simple, elegant Special Theory of Relativity, making mincemeat of his competition by relying on only two ideas: 1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames, and 2. The speed of light is the same for all inertial observers. Minkowski publishes Raum und Zeit (Space and Time), and establishes the idea of a spacetime continuum

52. A Conversation With Physicist Brian Greene in the 20th century was an unknown Prussian mathematician named theodor kaluza.In 1919 kaluza wrote a letter to Albert Einstein suggesting that, http://tap3x.net/EMBTI/j6greene.html

Next Article Front Page Email Author Comment A Conversation with Physicist Brian Greene Abstract skip to section one The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory After his talk, I engaged Brian in a conversation on what appeared to me to be an interesting resemblence between how he seemed to be approaching the structure of reality and what some of us want to say about the structure of consciousness. It is on this conversation that I wish to report in this piece. skip to section two In our recent series Pat and I discussed the role that the mandala, as symbol of a profound organizing principle, plays in personality typologies. This required us to articulate our views on the structure of consciousness itself. If the mandala is structured in such a way that its 'outermost' rim must be conceived as identical to its 'innermost' center, we argued, this is because consciousness is similarly structured. If conceived as a series of ever-wider experiential contexts, nested one within the other like a set of Chinese boxes, consciousness can be thought of as wrapping back around on itself in such a way that the outermost 'context' is indistinguishable from the innermost 'content' - a structure for which we coined the term 'liminocentric'. As attention expands its focus to include more and more of the margin or 'fringe' of consciousness, awareness becomes increasingly diffuse and undifferentiated. The same mental state, which occurs at both extremes, is a highly significant state in meditation practice, repeatedly singled out for special consideration by mystics in various traditions.

53. Does Space Have More Than 3 Dimensions? Between 1921 and 1927, theodor kaluza and Oskar Klein developed the first promisingtheory combining gravity and electromagnetism. http://www.astronomycafe.net/cosm/dimens.html

Does Space Have More Than 3 Dimensions? Written by Sten Odenwald For those of you who successfully mastered visualizing a hypercube, try imagining what an "ultracube" looks like. It's the five- dimensional analog of the cube, but this time it is bounded by one hypercube on each of its 10 faces! In the end, if our familiar world were not three-dimensional, geometers would not have found only five regular polyhedra after 2,500 years of searching. They would have found six (with four spatial dimension,) or perhaps only three (if we lived in a 5-D universe). Instead, we know of only five regular solids. And this suggests that we live in a universe with, at most, three spatial dimensions. All right, let's suppose our universe actually consists of four spatial dimensions. What happens? Since relativity tells us that we must also consider time as a dimension, we now have a space-time consisting of five dimensions. A consequence of 5-D space-time is that gravity has freedom to act in ways we may not want it to. From the above geometric and physical arguments, we can conclude (not surprisingly) that space is three-dimensional - on scales ranging from that of everyday objects to at least that of the solar system. If this were not the case, then geometers would have found more than five regular polyhedra and gravity would function very differently than it does - Voyager would not have arrived on time. Okay, so we've determined that our physical laws require no more than the three spatial dimensions to describe how the universe works. Or do they? Is there perhaps some other arena in the physical world where multidimensional space would be an asset rather than a liability?

54. The Science Bookstore - Chronology 1921 AD, theodor kaluza, unification of electromagnetics and gravity by introducingan extra dimension. 1921 AD, Bieler and Chadwick, evidence for a strong http://www.thesciencebookstore.com/chron.asp?pg=30

55. A Metaphysic Of The Forces Of Nature In Multiple Dimensions theodor kaluza and Oskar Klein noticed that adding an extra dimension to There was, indeed, the little question of what kaluza and Klein s extra http://www.friesian.com/curved-2.htm

A Metaphysic of the Forces of Nature in Multiple Dimensions Reading popular accounts and textbooks on physics and astronomy, for years I tended to think of Einstein's notion of the curvature of spacetime as primarily a matter of space being curved. This was reinforced by things like diagrams or museum exhibits that showed the "gravity well" of the sun, for instance, as a funnel with a hole at the bottom, around which ball bearings could roll and then fall in. These models seemed to presuppose rather than explain the existence of motion induced by gravity. Indeed, the exhibits relied on it. Only as explained in the essay "The Ontology and Cosmology of Non-Euclidean Geometry" did it finally occur to me that space was not curved at all. As time passes, what it is that displaces an object in space is curvature along the temporal axis. Hence the accompanying diagrams, which illustrate Einstein's Equivalence Principle in General Relativity where time is the vertical [y] axis and space has been reduced to one dimension in the horizonal [x] axis. Thus in the first two diagrams, we have "free fall," i.e. one does not

56. Einstein's Quest For Unification (January 2005) - Physics World - PhysicsWeb theodor kaluza and Oskar Klein proposed starting from a 5D theory, which containedan extra compactified spatial dimension in addition to the three http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/18/1/15/1

Advanced site search physics world sample issue Request a sample issue browse the archive January February March April May June July August September October November December Latest issue Subscribe to Physics World Media Information ... Editorial Staff quick search Search Physics World Physics World January 2005 Einstein's quest for unification Feature: January 2005 The last 30 years of his life were spent on a fruitless search for a unified field theory, but as John Ellis explains, Einstein put this "holy grail" of modern physics on the theoretical map. The definitive scientific biography of Einstein, Subtle is the Lord..., which was written by Abraham Pais in 1982, delivered an unequivocal verdict on Einstein's quest for a unified field theory. Pais wrote that the time for unification had not come, and that Einstein's work "led to no results of physical interest". But a lot of water has flowed under the bridge of unification since then, allowing us to look back with perhaps more indulgence as we celebrate the centenary of Einstein's 1905 papers. Let us briefly recall the relevant physics that was known in the 1920s, when Einstein embarked on his quest. The only known subatomic particles were the proton and the electron: the neutron and the neutrino, for example, were not predicted or discovered until the 1930s. Most "fundamental" physicists were striving to understand quantum physics - an endeavour from which Einstein stood apart. The structure of the nucleus was regarded as an interesting but secondary problem, and the unification of forces was considered, in the words of Pais, a minor issue.

57. The Search For Extra Dimensions (November 2000) - Physics World - PhysicsWeb inspired theodor kaluza and Oskar Klein to suggest that it might be possible to Inspired by this idea, kaluza and Klein proposed including the U(1) http://physicsweb.org/article/world/13/11/9

Advanced site search physics world sample issue Request a sample issue browse the archive January February March April May June July August September October November December Latest issue Subscribe to Physics World Media Information ... Editorial Staff quick search Search Physics World Physics World November 2000 Page 1 of 2 The search for extra dimensions Feature: November 2000 The idea that the universe is trapped on a membrane in some high-dimensional space-time may explain why gravity is so weak, and could be tested at high-energy particle accelerators. The possibility of extra dimensions, beyond the three dimensions of space of our everyday experience, sometimes crops up as a convenient, if rather vague, plot in science fiction. In science, however, the idea of extra dimensions has a rich history, dating back at least as far as the 1920s. Recently there has been a remarkable renaissance in this area due to the work of a number of theoretical physicists. It now seems possible that we, the Earth and, indeed, the entire visible universe are stuck on a membrane in a higher-dimensional space, like dust particles that are trapped on a soap bubble. In this article we look at the major issues behind this new development. Why, for example, don't we see these extra dimensions? If they exist, how can we detect them? And perhaps the trickiest question of all: how did this fanciful idea come to be considered in the first place?

58. Hope Math Dept Newsletter Mathography theodor kaluza (1885 1954) Our featured mathematician this issueis theodor kaluza, a contemporary of Albert Einstein. kaluza was a German http://www.math.hope.edu/newsletter/2004-05/newsletter03-08.html

OFF ON A TANGENT A Fortnightly Electronic Newsletter from the Hope College Department of Mathematics January 19, 2005 Vol. 3, No. 8 Tomor row' s colloquium sure to be a hit! When: Thursday, January 20 at 4:00 p.m. Where: Vander Werf, Room 104 Tea and goodies will be served in VWF 222 before the colloquium at from 3:30 to 4:00 p.m. Next week's colloquium promises to be strange When: Thursday, January 27 at 4:00 p.m. Where: Vander Werf, Room 104 Next week's colloquium will be presented by Prof. Steve Schlicker from Grand Valley State University. He will talk about "The Strange World of the Hausdorff Metric Geometry." This talk will be an introduction to the Hausdorff metric geometry. The "points" in this geometry are sets-that is they can represent actual physical objects. For four of the last five summers, students in the REU program at GVSU have been researching the properties of this geometry. They have discovered that lines and segments in this geometry exhibit some unexpected and rather odd behavior. In this talk he will introduce line segments with infinitely many and finitely many (greater than 1) points at each location, see connections with this geometry to the Fibonacci and Lucas numbers, learn a fascinating property of the number 19, and other oddities. Tea and goodies will again be served in VWF 222 before the colloquium at from 3:30 to 4:00 p.m.

59. Lexikon Theodor Kaluza theodor kaluza aus der freien EnzyklopädieWikipedia und steht unter der GNU Lizenz. Die Liste der Autoren ist http://lexikon.freenet.de/Theodor_Kaluza

E-Mail Mitglieder Community Suche ... Hilfe document.write(''); im Web in freenet.de in Shopping Branchen Lexikon Artikel nach Themen alphabetischer Index Artikel in Kategorien Weitere Themen "Doofes Rumgepoppe": BB-Star J¼rgen sorgt f¼r Zucht und Ordnung Trotz dicker Dinger: Halle Berry und ihre Busen-Scham IAA 2005: GroŸes Messe-Special ¼ber alle Highlights Strategische –lreserve soll angezapft werden! ... Vorgestellt: Alterna- tiven zu Microsofts Windows Vista Sie sind hier: Startseite Lexikon Theodor Kaluza Theodor Kaluza Theodor Franz Eduard Kaluza 9. November in Ratibor 19. Januar in G¶ttingen ) war ein deutscher Physiker und ist bekannt f¼r die Kaluza-Klein-Theorie Personendaten NAME Kaluza, Theodor Franz Eduard ALTERNATIVNAMEN KURZBESCHREIBUNG deutscher Physiker und ist bekannt f¼r die Kaluza-Klein-Theorie GEBURTSDATUM 9. November GEBURTSORT Ratibor STERBEDATUM 19. Januar STERBEORT G¶ttingen Von " http://lexikon.freenet.de/Theodor_Kaluza Einordnung Mann Deutscher ... Physiker Dieser Artikel basiert auf dem Artikel " Theodor Kaluza Wikipedia und steht unter der GNU Lizenz . Die Liste der Autoren ist unter dieser Seite bearbeitet werden.

60. The Membrane At The End Of The Universe In 1919, theodor kaluza, at the University of Konigsberg in East Prussia decidedto solve the equations of general relativity in five dimensions rather than http://feynman.physics.lsa.umich.edu/~mduff/talks/1988 - The Membrane at the End

The membrane at the end of the Universe In the quest for the ultimate theory of everything, theorists have given superstrings another dimension. Supermembranes may wrap up the Universe in 11 dimensions Michael Duff and Christine Sutton If the search for a theory of everything is proving so difficult, you might ask: "Why bother?" The answer is that the quest has to do with more than simple aesthetics. As it stands, the standard model leaves open many questions. For example, why do the known elementary particles have the masses we observe? Why are there apparently two kinds of basic "building brick"-the quarks, which constitute the matter of atomic nuclei, and the leptons, which include the electron among others? The hope among many theorists is that a theory describing all physical forces might automatically answer such questions. Theorists would also prefer such a theory to be so well constrained as to be "unique". The excitement that arose in 1984 came from the work of Michael Green, at Queen Mary College London To the superstrings, these fundamental objects must obey a symmetry known as supersymmetry. Supersymmetry relates the two classes of fundamental object required by the standard model-bosons and fermions. Bosons (named after Satendra Bose, because they behave in a manner that he first described) have integer values of intrinsic spin. This means that they have an angular momentum of 0, 1, 2, ... times the basic unit. Fermions have half-integer spins of 1/2, 3/2, and so on. These particles are named after Enrico Fermi.

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