81. AIP Niels Bohr Library De revolvtionibvs orbium cœlestium, libri VI. Norimbergæ, Apud I. Petreium, 1543.by copernicus, nicolaus, 14731543. http://www.aip.org/history/catalog/21250.html

If you are not immediately redirected, please click here My List - Help Browse Books Archival Resources Archival Finding Aids Photos Browse FAQs Past Searches History Home Search: Author Subject Title Journal/Newspaper Title Series Computer File (Software) Title Video Title Refine Search AIP Niels Bohr Library Item Information Holdings More by this author Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. Subjects Astronomy Early works to 1800. Solar system Early works to 1800. Browse Catalog by author: Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. by title: De revolvtionibvs or... MARC Display by Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. [S.l. : M.J. Hermann, 1927] 1927] Call Number: N8 COP Description: [1] l., (196 l. diagrs., tables) port. 33 cm. Notes: Copy/Holding information Location Collection Call No. Status Niels Bohr Library Books General Collection N8 COP In NBL Format: HTML Plain text Delimited Subject: Email to: Horizon Information Portal 3.0 Dynix

82. Science And Human Values - Copernicus In 1543, the Polish astronomer nicolaus copernicus published a book that went sofar as to reject a basic axiom of astronomy he proposed that the sun, http://www.rit.edu/~flwstv/copernicus.html

Prof. Fred L. Wilson Rochester Institute of Technology Science and Human Values Copernicus Chapter 15 Overview of Copernicus To the Greek natural philosophy, the Renaissance thinkers brought a fresh outlook, for the old views no longer entirely satisfied. In 1543, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus published a book that went so far as to reject a basic axiom of astronomy: he proposed that the sun, not the earth, be considered the center of the universe. (He retained the notion of circular orbits for the earth and other planets, however.) This new axiom allowed a much simpler explanation of the observed motions of heavenly bodies. Yet the Copernican axiom of a moving earth was far less "self-evident" than the Greek axiom of a motionless earth, and so it is not surprising that it took more than half a century for the Copernican theory to be accepted. In a sense, the Copernican system itself was not a crucial change. Copernicus had merely switched axioms; and Aristarchus of Samos had already anticipated this switch to the sun as the center 2,000 years earlier. I do not mean to say that the changing of an axiom is a minor matter. When mathematicians of the nineteenth century challenged Euclid's axioms and developed "non-Euclidean geometries" based on other assumptions, they influenced thought on many matters in a most profound way: today the very history and form of the universe are thought to conform to a non-Euclidean geometry rather than the "commonsense" geometry of Euclid. But the revolution initiated by Copernicus entailed not just a shift in axioms but eventually involved a whole new approach to nature. This revolution was carried through in the person of the Italian Galileo Galilei toward the end of the sixteenth century.

83. ResAnet Results Summary Search Term(s), copernicus, nicolaus, 14731543, 7 matches found Recordcopernicus, nicolaus, 1473-1543. Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De revolutionibus http://www.collectionscanada.ca/wbin/resanet/resultsm/l=0/d=1/r=0/s=s/n=NK/h=10/

Sort By: Title Author Date Search Term(s): Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543 matches found Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. Three Copernican treatises : the Commentariolus of Copernicus, the Letter against Werner, the Narratio prima of Rheticus / Translated with introd. and notes by Edward Rosen. 2d ed., rev. ; with an annotated Copernicus bibliography, 1939-1958. New York : Dover Publications, [1959]. Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. Complete works. London : Macmillan, 1972- Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, libri VI. Bruxelles : Culture et Civilisation, 1966. Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. Des révolutions des orbes célestes / Nicolas Copernic; traduction avec introd. et notes par A. Koyré. Paris : A. Blanchard, 1970. Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1473-1543. Oeuvres complètes / Nicolas Copernic. Version française. Paris : Éditions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1973-

84. Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Centre The nicolaus copernicus Astronomical Centre (CAMK) is a reasearch institute ofthe Polish Academy of Sciences. It has been founded in 1978. http://www.camk.edu.pl/eng/

Bartycka 18, 00-716 Warszawa +48 (22) 8410041 fax. +48 (22) 8410046 email: camk@camk.edu.pl http://www.camk.edu.pl PHONES INDEX ... INTRANET LOCAL ACCESS ONLY COMMENTS: webmaster@camk.edu.pl English pages translated by Grzegorz Stachowski The Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Centre (CAMK) is a reasearch institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences. It has been founded in 1978. The Centre employs 33 researchers and teaches 22 PhD students. The fields of research cover astronomy, astrophysics and cosmology. more in the INFORMATION section ANNOUNCEMENTS First International Workshop on "Stellar Astrophysics with the World Largest Telescopes" 7-10 September 2004 International Conference "Humps and Bumps in Cataclysmic Variable Stars" Frombork, Poland 22-26 September 2004 International Conference "Astrophysical Sources of High Energy Particles and Radiation" 20-24 June 2005 International Conference Planetary Nebulae as astronomical tools"

85. COPERNICUS, Nicolaus., De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI. Printer s device on title on verso of last leaf and woodcut diagrams in the text.6 pl, 213 numbered leaves, 1 leaf. Folio (285 x 195 mm. http://www.polybiblio.com/jahill/HillBibl-164W18.0.html

Jonathan A. Hill, Bookseller Inc. COPERNICUS, Nicolaus. De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI. Basel: H. Petri, 1566. This item is listed on Bibliopoly by Jonathan A. Hill, Bookseller Inc. ; click here for further details.

86. Glossary Of People: Co copernicus, nicolaus (1473 1543). Polish astronomer, founder of the conceptionof the Universe in which the Sun is at the centre, and the Earth moves http://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/c/o.htm

MIA Encyclopedia of Marxism : Glossary of People Co Comte, Auguste (1798 - 1857) Founder of positivism Henri de Saint-Simon , one of the founders of socialism and one of the first to see the importance of economic organisation in modern society. Comte’s ideas were very similar to Saint-Simon’s, and some of his earliest articles appeared in Saint-Simon’s publications. There were distinct differences in the two men’s viewpoints and scientific backgrounds, however, and Comte eventually broke with Saint-Simon. In 1826 Comte began a series of lectures on his "system of positive philosophy" for a private audience, but he soon suffered a serious nervous breakdown. He made an almost complete recovery from his symptoms the following year, and in 1828/29 he again took up his projected lecture series. This was so successfully concluded that he re-delivered it at the Royal Athenaeum. The following 12 years were devoted to his publication of his philosophy in Course of Positive Philosophy During the remainder of his life he was supported in part by English admirers such as John Stuart Mill Comte devoted the years after the death of Clotilde de Vaux to composing his other major work, the

87. GGRENir: Thesaurus: P00337 GGRENir Thesaurus item P00337. Kopernik, Mikolai. (copernicus, nicolaus).((Kopernikus, Nikolaus)). GGRENir Home , GGRENir Entry page for Browsing http://www.phil-hum-ren.uni-muenchen.de/GGRENirDB/ThP337.htm

GGRENir: Thesaurus: item: P00337 Kopernik, Mikolai (Copernicus, Nicolaus) ((Kopernikus, Nikolaus)) GGRENir: Home GGRENir: Entry page for Browsing GGRENir: Entry page for Searching Go "upwards" in tree to: Persons: C Personae: C / Personen: C Persons: K ... / Personen: K Retrieve the 5 records that have been indexed with this term, and display them: in extremely concise format in moderate format in "rich" format in definitely verbose format ... GGRENir: Entry page for Searching

88. Copernicus, Nicolaus with an historical introduction, biographical data and bibliography. http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~ghtc/art33.htm

[Galileo and the rotation of the Earth] MARTINS, Roberto de Andrade. [A commented translation of Copernicus' "Commentariolus", with an historical introduction, biographical data and bibliography] [Galileo and the principle of relativity]

89. When The Earth Moved: Copernicus And His Heliocentric System Of The Universe Open Directory Kids and Teens School Time Science Scientists Encarta copernicus, nicolaus Kids/Teens/Mature Teens - Encyclopedia Starchild nicolaus copernicus Kids/Teens - Introduces the father of modern http://wings.buffalo.edu/info-poland/classroom/kopernik/copernicus.html

When the Earth Moved Copernicus and his Heliocentric System of the Universe by Dr. Severyn ¯o³êdziowski The following is the edited text of a presentation made on October 20, 1993 at a joint meeting of the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo and the Buffalo Museum of Science in commemoration of the 450th anniversary of the first printing of Nicholas Copernicus' immortal work which revolutionized astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543 unknown artist, last quarter 16th century Copernicus; The Formative Years In commemorating this important historical milestone, I will review the life and work of the great Polish astronomer, give the history behind the writing of the book and its later fates, and say a few words about the Copernican model of the universe. The heliocentric model of the universe, which is now universally accepted and included in all science curricula taught in schools and colleges, was not always acknowledged by scholars. The history of Copernicanism, as this cosmological theory is called, is a case study in the evolution of human thinking and the difficulty encountered in challenging well-established traditions. Copernicus (Miko³aj Kopernik) had to develop and demonstrate the validity of the mathematical model which reflected the physical reality of the solar system. He also had to overcome centuries-old and well entrenched concepts of the universe.

90. IMAX Tycho Brahe Planetarium - Copernicus, Nicolaus copernicus, nicolaus (14731543). Polsk astronom som fik stor betydning foreuropæisk videnskab, ved at foreslå et nyt heliocentrisk verdensbillede, http://www.tycho.dk/article/view/2762/1/75/

Sitemap Kontakt Hjælp Solen Nyhedsoversigt Tigerstribet ismåne 31. august 2005 Kosmisk nedskæring 31. august 2005 Tethys i kikkerten 30. august 2005 Tank-fabrik klarer Katrina 30. august 2005 Marssonde retter kursen 29. august 2005 Himmelsk drage 29. august 2005 Orkanen Katrina set fra rummet 29. august 2005 Dansk forskning gør Solsystemet ældre 26. august 2005 Copernicus, Nicolaus Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473-1543). Polsk astronom som fik stor betydning for europæisk videnskab, ved at foreslå et nyt heliocentrisk verdensbillede, der løste problemet med det ptolemæiske verdensbillede. Printvenlig side

91. Willkommen Im Nicolaus Copernicus Planetarium Translate this page nicolaus copernicus Planetarium. Bildungszentrum Nürnberg. Navigation! Programmübersicht. Willkommen beim. nicolaus copernicus Planetarium. http://www.bz.nuernberg.de/planetarium/

Willkommen beim Nicolaus Copernicus Planetarium

92. Provinz-Ostpreußen : Copernicus, Nicolaus Translate this page copernicus, nicolaus. geb. 19.02.1473 in Thorn, gest. 24.05.1543 in FrauenburgAstronom. Er besuchte das Kulmer Patikular, studierte in Krakau Mathematik, http://www.provinz-ostpreussen.de/ostpreussen/ospers_copernicus.html

Copernicus, Nicolaus geb. 19.02.1473 in Thorn, gest. 24.05.1543 in Frauenburg Astronom Er besuchte das Kulmer Patikular, studierte in Krakau Mathematik, Astronomie und " den Aristoteles". In Bologna erwarb er die Matrikel des " hochedeln Collegiums der Deutschen" an der Rechtsfakultät.. Er studierte in Padua Medizin und promovierte in Ferrara im kanonischen Recht. Der ermländische Kanonikus und Scholastikus der Kollegiatkirche zum Heiligen Kreuz auf der Breslauer Dominsel wurde Leibarzt seines Onkels, des Bischofs Lukas Watzenrode in Heilsberg. Berühmt wurde er als Begründer des neuen astronomischen Weltbildes, obwohl seine Erfolge als Staatsmann und Jurist, Sprachforscher und Kenner der Antike nicht zu unterschätzen sind. Er zeichnete Landkarten von Preußen, verfaßte Denkschriften zur Münzreform. Unsterblich machte ihn sein Werk " De revolutionibus ", durch das er der Wissenschaft einen völlig neuen Weg wies. Goethe nannte Copernicus den größten und wirkungsvollsten Entdecker aller Zeiten, Lichtenberg sprach von einem " der größten und kühnsten Gedanken, die der Mensch gewagt hat". Sein Werk wurde fortgesetzt von Giordano Bruno, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Keppler, Galileo Galilei, Isaak Newton und endgültig bewiesen von Wilhelm Bessel in der Sternwarte zu Königsberg. Namensverzeichnis www.provinz-ostpreussen.de

93. RASC Library - Subject Index - Alphabet C copernicus, nicolaus, Stachiewicz, Wanda M. copernicus and the Changing World copernicus, nicolaus De revolutionibus orbium Cosmology, Kuhn, Thomas S. http://www.rasc.ca/library/libsc.htm

The Royal Astronomical Society of Canada Library Subject Index - Alphabet C Home Library A B ... Z Subject heading Author Title Out Dewey Note Publisher Lyear L.C. Notes Calculating engines Scientists Babbage, Charles Babbage, Charles Charles Babbage and His Calculating Engines; Selected Writings 510.78 B New York: Dover Publications Babbage, Charles, 1792-1871. Charles Babbage and his calculating engines; selected writings by Charles Babbage and others. Edited with an introd. by Philip Morrison and Emily Morrison. 400p. illus. 21cm. Includes bibliography. Calendar Achelis, Elisabeth The World Calendar 529.5 A New York: G.P. Putnum's sons Achelis, Elisabeth, 1880-. The world calendar; addresses and occasional papers chronologically arranged on the progress of calendar reform since 1930. 189p. pl.,double tab. 21cm Explanatory notes on slip inserted before p.13. Calendar-history Wilson, Philip Whitwell The Romance of the Calendar 529.3 W New York: W.W. Norton Calendars Bowditch, Charles P. 520.9 B Cambridge USA: The University Press Calendars Le Sueur, W.W. Payn

94. Publikationen Fritz Krafft Artikel In Lexika Und Handbüchern copernicus, nicolaus; S. 214-216 Kepler, Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm; S. 141-143 copernicus, nicolaus; S. 320 f. http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~krafft/artikel.htm

Stand: 20. Dezember 2004) Bd 1, 1971, Sp. 526-527: Art (biologisch, Antike). Bd 3, 1974, Sp. 25-27: Gattung (biologisch, Antike); Sp. 1206-1212: Horror vacui. Bd 4, 1976, Sp. 1211-1226: Kreis und Kugel. Bd 5, 1980, Sp. 950-952: Mechanik (I, Antike). Bd 7, 1989, Sp. 402-403: Pflanzenseele (I, Antike). Bd 1, 1977-1980, Sp. 898 f.: Archimedes; Sp. 941 f.: Aristoteles (B III und IV); Sp. 1063-1065: artes mechanicae; Sp. 1174 f.: Atomistik. Bd 2, 1981, Sp.24-28: Bewegung. Bd 5, 1990, Sp. 598 f.: Johannes de Sacrobosco (Johannes 169). Bd 3, 1989, S. 295-296: Erxleben, Johann Christian Polykarp; S. 324 f.: Fabricius, David; S. 324 f.:Fabricius, Johannes. Bd 4, 1989, S. 418 f.: Guericke, Otto von. Bd 5, 1990, S. 291 f.: Hevelius, Johannes. Bd 6, 1990, S. 281-284: Kepler, Johannes; S. 347 f.: Klaproth, Martin Heinrich; S. 491-493: Kopernikus, Nikolaus. Bd 9, 1991, S. 23 f.: Ostwald, Wilhelm; S. 197: Poggendorff, Johann Christian; S. 334-336: Regiomontanus, Johannes; S. 433 f.: Richter, Jeremias Benjamin; S. 466: Riese, Adam. Bd 10, 1991, S. 46: Rothmann, Christoph; S. 183 f.: Scheiner, Christoph.

95. People(Copernicus) - STARBASE A short biography of nicolaus copernicus with a picturehttp//www.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/copern.html A biogrpahy of nicolaus copernicusand his theories http://www.ph.surrey.ac.uk/astrophysics/files/copernicus.html

NB. Blue links are links within the current page. Purple links are external links to other web sites. Pale Green links are are to other pages at this site.) General Einstein, Albert (1879-1955) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Hipparchus (c. 180-125 BC) ... Hawking, Stephen (1942-1998+) Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who worked on the heliocentric theory of planetary motion and who showed his dissatisfaction toward the Ptolemaic System LINKS A short biography of Nicolaus Copernicus with a picture http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/copern.html A biogrpahy of Nicolaus Copernicus and his theories http://www.connect.net/ron/copernicus.html Information on his life and work http://www.intelligentchild.com/astronomy/copernicus.html Info. on the life on Nicolaus Copernicus http://faust.irb.hr/~dpaar/fizicari/xcopern.html The Copernican Model...loads of diagrams on the work of Copernicus (incl. animated ones) and information on his work http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograde/copernican.html A timeline of events that occured after the death of Copernicus, which he influenced http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/people/faculty/tenn/CopernicanRevolution.html

96. URANOS: Nicolaus Copernicus N. copernicus nicolaus copernicus Mikolaj Kopernik (14731543). Polish astronomer,mathematician, economist, and physician. In his principal work De http://www.uranos.eu.org/biogr/koperne.html

von Braun Explorers Galileo Bekker Poles Hevelius po polsku Nicolaus Copernicus [Mikolaj Kopernik] Polish astronomer, mathematician, economist, and physician. In his principal work " De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs ") which was published in 1543 (the year of his death), he presented a description of a heliocentric planetary system (in which the planets, including the Earth , revolve around the Sun). This was in opposition to the geocentric system (in which everything including the Sun and planets revolve around the Earth ), developed by the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy, and almost universally accepted for some fifteen hundred years before Copernicus. The work of Copernicus had a major impact on the science and philosophy of the times after his death. Called the "Copernican revolution," it became one of the cornerstones in the development of modern science, in particular physics and astronomy. However, Copernicus still assumed, following the Ptolemaic system, circular orbits of planets. This forced him to retain epicycles and other elements complicating his heliocentric system. Also, it did not lead to improvement of the accuracy of prediction of planet positions. As a result, Copernicus' main arguments were more of a philosophical than physical nature. Only further progress in observation techniques (such that the invention of the telescope by Galileo and, using the telescope, the discovery of

97. Copernicus copernicus, nicolaus (b. Feb. 19, 1473; Torun Poland; d. May 24, 1543; Frauenburg).In 1491 he entered the University of Cracow where he became interested http://www.bo.astro.it/copernic/cop-eng.html

COPERNICUS, Nicolaus (b. Feb. 19, 1473; Torun Poland; d. May 24, 1543; Frauenburg) In 1491 he entered the University of Cracow where he became interested in astronomy. He went to Italy in 1496, staying four years in Bologna and three in Padua and finally taking a doctorate in canon law at the University of Ferrara. By this time he had become a canon of Frauenburg, a post he was to hold until his death. Copernicus's astronomical studies in Bologna, with the neo-platonist astronomer Domenico Maria Novara, both brought him a distinguished reputation and led to a dissatisfaction with the prevailing system of astronomy: the system outlined by Ptolemy in the Almagest in the second century AD. It assumed that the Earth, unmoving, was at the centre of the universe around which the Moon, the Sun, the stars and other known planets revolved with perfect uniform circular motion. In his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium The book did meet opposition from Aristotelians and from theologians, who found that it conflicted with the Bible. Other astronomers, like Tycho Brahe himself, found it simply absurd that the Earth could be flying through space. A moving Earth ought also to imply apparent movement in the fixed stars. Moreover, although the heliocentric theory explained the movements of the Moon and the planets in a more elegant way than the Ptolemaic system, Copernicus's insistence on perfect circular orbits did not make his system simpler than Ptolemy's.

98. Nicolaus Copernicus copernicus, nicolaus (14731543), Polish astronomer, best known for his astronomical nicolaus copernicus. kopernik.jpg - 11916 Bytes . http://www.geocities.com/arekgondek/copernicus.html

Main Where is Poland Basics Environment ... Other resources Copernicus, Nicolaus Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473-1543), Polish astronomer, best known for his astronomical theory that the sun is at rest near the center of the universe, and that the earth, spinning on its axis once daily, revolves annually around the sun. This is called the heliocentric, or sun-centered, system. Early Life and Education Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473, in Thorn (now Torun), Poland, to a family of merchants and municipal officials. Copernicus's maternal uncle, Bishop Lukasz Watzenrode, saw to it that his nephew obtained a solid education at the best universities. Copernicus entered Jagiellonian University in 1491, studied the liberal arts for four years without receiving a degree, and then, like many Poles of his social class, went to Italy to study medicine and law. Before he left, his uncle had him appointed a church administrator in Frauenberg (now Frombork); this was a post with financial responsibilities but no priestly duties. In January 1497 Copernicus began to study canon law at the University of Bologna while living in the home of a mathematics professor, Domenico Maria de Novara. Copernicus's geographical and astronomical interests were greatly stimulated by Domenico Maria, an early critic of the accuracy of the Geography of the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy. Together, the two men observed the occultation (the eclipse by the moon) of the star Aldebaran on March 9, 1497.

99. Copernicus, Nicholaus (1473-1543) -- From Eric Weisstein's World Of Scientific B copernicus became interested in astronomy and published an early copernicus ssystem was taught in some universities in the 1500s but had not permeated http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Copernicus.html

Branch of Science Astronomers Branch of Science Mathematicians ... Polish Copernicus, Nicholaus (1473-1543) Polish name: Mikolaj Kopernik. Polish astronomer and mathematician who, as a student, studied canon law, mathematics, and medicine at Cracow, Bologna, Rome, Padua, and Ferrara. Copernicus became interested in astronomy and published an early description of his "heliocentric" model of the solar system in Commentariolus (1512). In this model, the sun was actually not exactly the center of the solar system, but was slightly offset from the center using a device invented by Ptolemy known as the equant point. The idea that the Sun was the center of the solar system was not new (similar theories had been proposed by Aristarchus and Nicholas of Cusa), but Copernicus also worked out his system in full mathematical detail. Even though the mathematics in his description was not any simpler than Ptolemy's , it required fewer basic assumptions. By postulating only the rotation of the Earth revolution about the sun and tilt of Earth's rotational axis, Copernicus could explain the observed motion of the heavens. However, because Copernicus retained circular orbits, his system required the inclusion of epicycles. Unfortunately, out of fear that his ideas might get him into trouble with the church, Copernicus delayed publication of them.

100. The Scientists: Nicolas Copernicus. The most important aspect of copernicus work is that it forever changed theplace of man in the cosmos; no longer could man legitimately think his http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Science/Copernicus.htm

Nicolas Copernicus Copernicus is said to be the founder of modern astronomy. He was born in Poland, and eventually was sent off to Cracow University, there to study mathematics and optics; at Bologna, canon law. Returning from his studies in Italy, Copernicus, through the influence of his uncle, was appointed as a canon in the cathedral of Frauenburg where he spent a sheltered and academic life for the rest of his days. Because of his clerical position, Copernicus moved in the highest circles of power; but a student he remained. For relaxation Copernicus painted and translated Greek poetry into Latin. His interest in astronomy gradually grew to be one in which he had a primary interest. His investigations were carried on quietly and alone, without help or consultation. He made his celestial observations from a turret situated on the protective wall around the cathedral, observations were made "bare eyeball," so to speak, as a hundred more years were to pass before the invention of the telescope. In 1530, Copernicus completed and gave to the world his great work De Revolutionibus , which asserted that the earth rotated on its axis once daily and traveled around the sun once yearly: a fantastic concept for the times. Up to the time of Copernicus the thinkers of the western world believed in the Ptolemiac theory that the universe was a closed space bounded by a spherical envelope beyond which there was nothing.

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