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         Field Theory:     more books (100)
  1. Quantum Field Theory and Critical Phenomena (The International Series of Monographs on Physics) by Jean Zinn-Justin, 2002-08-15
  2. Introduction to Gauge Field Theory Revised Edition (Graduate Student Series in Physics) (Volume 0) by D. Bailin, Alexander Love, 1993-01-01
  3. Introduction to Quantum Field Theory by V.lG. Kiselev, Ya.M. Shnir, et all 2000-11-17
  4. Lectures on Quantum Theory: Mathematical and Structural Foundations by C. J. Isham, 1995-12
  5. Introduction to Field Theory: Second Edition (Dover Books on Mathematics) by Iain T. Adamson, 2007-12-26
  6. An Introduction to Relativistic Quantum Field Theory by Silvan S. Schweber, 2005-06-17
  7. The Quantum Theory of Fields, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (2 Vol. Set) by Steven Weinberg, 1996-08-13
  8. General Principles of Quantum Field Theory (Mathematical Physics and Applied Mathematics) by N.N. Bogolubov, Anatoly A. Logunov, et all 1989-12-31
  9. Particle Physics and Introduction to Field Theory (Contemporary Concepts in Physics, Vol. 1) by T.D. Lee, 1981-08-15
  10. Geometry and Quantum Field Theory: June 22-July 20, 1991, Park City, Utah (Ias/Park City Mathematics, Vol 1) by Daniel S. Freed, 1995-03-24
  11. The Quantum Theory of Fields 3 Volume Paperback Set (v. 1-3) by Steven Weinberg, 2005-05-23
  12. Statistical Field Theory: An Introduction to Exactly Solved Models in Statistical Physics (Oxford Graduate Texts) by Giuseppe Mussardo, 2009-11-02
  13. Electromagnetic Field Theory Fundamentals by Bhag Singh Guru, Hüseyin R. Hiziroglu, 2009-07-23
  14. Conceptual Developments of 20th Century Field Theories by Tian Yu Cao, 1998-06-28

61. Quantum Field Theory - Cetin BAL - GSM:+90  05366063183 -Turkiye/Denizli
Quantum field theory can be considered as field + quantization . Followings is a mathematical formulation (at 2nd year undergraduate level) on the
http://www.zamandayolculuk.com/cetinbal/quantumfieldtheory.htm
Time Travel Research Center Cetin BAL - GSM:+90 05366063183 -Turkey/Denizli
Quantum Field Theory
Contents
The Field Equation
Quantization
Green's Function and Renormalization
Perturbation Theory and S Matrix
Feynman Diagram
Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
A Very Brief Overview of the Standard Model
The Field Equation
Quantum Field Theory can be considered as "field + quantization". Followings is a mathematical formulation (at 2nd year undergraduate level) on the construction of quantum field and its application to elementary particle physics.
The dynamic of the field is determined by the field equation. The field equation for the neutral scalar meson field is a very simple kind of Klein-Gordon Equation as shown below:
where m is a parameter related to the mass, is the field, which is a complex function (with real and imaginary parts) of x, y, z, and t (simply represented by x in the equation),
, and
are the Laplacians in four dimensional space-time and three dimensional space respectively. The wave equations and many systems in physics and engineering are constructed with these Laplacian operators. The field can be expressed in a series expansion in terms of the harmonic functions and the coefficients c k 's, where k is a four dimensional vector related to the momentum and energy of the particle:

62. Mean Field Theory
The goal of this section is to introduce the socalled mean field theory (also known as self consistent field theory) and to illustrate the theory by
http://xbeams.chem.yale.edu/~batista/vaa/node39.html
Mean Field Theory
The goal of this section is to introduce the so-called mean field theory (also known as self consistent field theory ) and to illustrate the theory by applying it to the description of the Ising model. The main idea of the mean field theory is to focus on one particle and assume that the most important contribution to the interactions of such particle with its neighboring particles is determined by the mean field due to the neighboring particles. In the 1-dimensional Ising model, for instance, the average force exerted on spin is
where the index includes all the nearest neighbors of spin . Therefore, the average magnetic field acting on spin is
where
is the contribution to the mean field due to the nearest neighbors. Note that when all spins are identical. Eq. (301) defines the self consistent aspect of the theory, since according to such equation the mean field acting on spin is determined by its own mean value . The assumption that the interactions of a spin with its neighboring spins can be approximately described by the mean field , introduced by Eq. (302), introduces an enormous simplification. Such mean field approximation simplifies the many body statistical mechanics problem to a

63. MPI MIS Leipzig - Recent Developments In Quantum Field Theory
String Theory Loop Quantum Gravity Quantum field theory on Curved SpaceTime as well as the different approaches to quantum field theory and quantum
http://www.mis.mpg.de/conferences/qft_leipzig/
Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences
Recent Developments in Quantum Field Theory Research Groups quick links: Hackbusch Jost Zeidler Ay printable version Conferences Recent Developments in Quantum Field Theory: Homepage Participants Speakers Preliminary program ... Upcoming Conferences Conferences during: The Institute Home About the Institute Research Groups People ... Impressum powered by
Secure login (SSH 2)
MPI MIS Webmail WWW Other Max-Planck-Institutes Partner Institute for Computational Biology Department of Mathematics and Computer Science Top-Level Reseach Area 'Mathematical Sciences' ... IZBI (Interdisciplinary Centre for Bioinformatics) University of Leipzig City of Leipzig Mathematical Sites Physics Sites ... Personal homepages The basic idea of the conference is to bring together a mixture of young and well-established researchers, both working at the forefront of quantum field theory and quantum gravity, to discuss their contributions to the recent developments within their respective fields. The fields to be covered are
String Theory
Loop Quantum Gravity
Quantum Field Theory on Curved Space-Time
Non-Commutative Field Theory/Geometry as well as the different approaches to quantum field theory and quantum gravity using Topos Theory.

64. Vienna Central European Seminar On Particle Physics And Quantum Field Theory
Vienna Central European Seminar on Particle Physics and Quantum field theory.
http://www.univie.ac.at/vienna.seminar/
Department of Theoretical Physics
University of Vienna
Prof. Helmuth Hüffel
1st Vienna Central European Seminar, Nov. 26 - 28, 2004
2nd Vienna Central European Seminar, Nov. 25 - 27, 2005 3rd Vienna Central European Seminar, Dec. 01 - 03, 2006 4th Vienna Central European Seminar, Nov. 30 - Dec. 02, 2007 ... 5th Vienna Central European Seminar, Nov. 28 - 30, 2008 (last updated: 11/02/2008) www.univie.ac.at/vienna.seminar/ , E-mail: vienna.theor-physik@univie.ac.at

65. Lattice 2003
The XXI International Symposium on Lattice field theory 2003 ); 13 th Workshop on Lattice field theory ( Yale University , New Haven, May 13, 2003 )
http://www.rccp.tsukuba.ac.jp/lat03/
LATTICE 2003
The XXI International Symposium on Lattice Field Theory
Tsukuba International Congress Center (EPOCHAL TSUKUBA)
Tsukuba
Ibaraki Japan
July 15-19, 2003
Link to Lat 2004
The XXII International Symposium on Lattice Field Theory
Fermilab June 21-26, 2004
Announcements
  • Nov. 22, 2002
  • Apr. 1, 2003
  • June 18, 2003
  • July 11, 2003
  • Aug. 11, 2003
  • First Announcement
    Second Announcement
    Third Announcement
    Notes upon your Arrival ...
    Proceedings - Author Instructions
    Information
  • Program Overview
  • Webcast and Transparency
  • What we do
  • Plenary Talk
  • Evening Session
  • Parallel Talks ...
  • Speaker List
  • Conference Topics
    Hadron spectrum and quark masses Non-zero temperature and density Spin and Higgs models
    Weak matrix elements Chiral fermions Quantum gravity
    Heavy quark physics Topology and confinement Machines and algorithms
    Conference Poster pdf gif and Logo pdf gif
    Hosted by
    Lattice 2003 Organizing Committee
    Co-Hosted by
  • University of Tsukuba
  • High Energy Accelerator Research Organization ( KEK )
  • Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics, Kyoto University ( YITP )
  • Financially Supported by
  • Best Systems Inc.
  • 66. FIELD THEORY, THE RENORMALIZATION GROUP, AND CRITICAL PHENOMENA
    field theory, THE RENORMALIZATION GROUP, AND CRITICAL PHENOMENA.
    http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/5715.html
    Home Browse by Subject Bestsellers New Titles ... Browse all Subjects Search Bookshop New Titles Editor's Choice Bestsellers Book Series ... Join Our Mailing List FIELD THEORY, THE RENORMALIZATION GROUP, AND CRITICAL PHENOMENA
    Graphs to Computers
    Third Edition

    by Daniel J Amit (Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain)
    Appendix (sample Monte Carlo programs)
    This volume links field theory methods and concepts from particle physics with those in critical phenomena and statistical mechanics, the development starting from the latter point of view. Rigor and lengthy proofs are trimmed by using the phenomenological framework of graphs, power counting, etc., and field theoretic methods with emphasis on renormalization group techniques. Non-perturbative methods and numerical simulations are introduced in this new edition. Abundant references to research literature complement this matter-of-fact approach. The book introduces quantum field theory to those already grounded in the concepts of statistical mechanics and advanced quantum theory, with sufficient exercises in each chapter for use as a textbook in a one-semester graduate course. The following new chapters are included: I. Real Space Methods

    67. Quantum Field Theory And Mathematical Physics
    Korea Institute for Advanced Study (KIAS) will host the KIAS workshop on Quantum field theory and Mathematical Physics during May 1516, 2003.
    http://conf.kias.re.kr/qft.htm
    Quantum Field Theory and Mathematical Physics MAY 14-16, 2003 International Conference Hall Korea Institute for Advanced Study, Seoul, Korea Korea Institute for Advanced Study (KIAS) will host the KIAS workshop on Quantum Field Theory and Mathematical Physics during May 15-16, 2003 . The purpose of this workshop is to provide researchers an opportunity to meet and discuss various topics in quantum field theory. The focus will be more on more formal sides rather than phenomenological aspects. Some of topics will be related to superstring/M theory. Organization Committee: Gerald Dunne (Univ. Connecticut ) , Kimyeong Lee (KIAS), Chaiho Rim ( Chonbuk Univ.)
    Invited Speakers and Talk Titles:
    Changhyun Ahn ( Kyungpook Univ. Phases of Gauge Theories Dongsu Bak (Seoul City Univ.) Gravity Dual of Janusian Field Theory Gerald Dunne (Univ. Connecticut Self-duality, Helicity and Higher-loop QED Seungjoon Hyun ( Yonsei Univ. QFT on D-Branes in PP Wave Backgrounds Sangpyo Kim( Kunsan Univ.

    68. David Tong: Quantum Field Theory
    Table of Contents; Introduction; Lagrangian field theory; Lorentz Invariance; Noether s Theorem and Conserved Currents; Hamiltonian field theory.
    http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/dt281/qft.html
    var sc_project=467961; var sc_partition=2; var sc_invisible=1; David Tong: Lectures on Quantum Field Theory
    Contact
    Bio Research Teaching ... Solitons

    The career of a young theoretical physicist consists of treating the harmonic oscillator in ever-increasing levels of abstraction. Sidney Coleman.
    The full set of lectures notes can be downloaded here. They come in at about 150 pages. Individual sections can be downloaded below. Please email me any typos or comments. Last updated January 2008. PostScript PDF
    Content : Quantum Field Theory Lecture Notes
    • 0. Preliminaries: Postscript PDF
      1. Classical Field Theory: Postscript PDF

      Table of Contents; Introduction; Lagrangian Field Theory; Lorentz Invariance; Noether's Theorem and Conserved Currents; Hamiltonian Field Theory. 2. Canonical Quantization: Postscript PDF
      The Klein-Gordon Equation, The Simple Harmonic Oscillator; Free Quantum Fields; Vacuum Energy; Particles; Relativistic Normalization; Complex Scalar Fields; The Heisenberg Picture; Causality and Propagators; Applications; Non-Relativistic Field Theory 3. Interacting Fields:

    69. The Cemi Field Theory
    This consciousness electromagnetic information field (cemi field) theory may sound farfetched, but it rests on just three propositions.
    http://www.surrey.ac.uk/qe/cemi.htm
    The conscious electromagnetic field theory Most scientists now embrace monism , that the stuff of mind is the same as the stuff of the brain, matter. Many, particularly in the artificial intelligence field, take the view that consciousness is just an inevitable product of complex computation, as the evolutionary biologist T. H. Huxley put it, like the ‘steam whistle, which accompanies the work of a locomotive [but] without influence upon its machinery.’ In the steam whistle view, consciousness just pops out of the complex interconnected computations performed by the network of neurons within our brain. But why should it? The Internet now links up millions of computers in a gigantic superbrain that will soon rival our own organic version in computational capability. But does anyone seriously believe that, like HAL, driven by its digital consciousness, the Internet may soon turn on us its creators? The plain fact is that nothing rendered in silicon remotely resembles a conscious mind. Another problem with the steam whistle is that it goes against the grain of everything we have learnt since Darwin about how complex biological systems evolved. Every bit of our body and our mind is here today because it provides some function – some advantage to us - that been captured, and improved upon by natural selection over millennia. Bodies don’t have steam whistles, but if they did, they would have a role to play in the survival of the creature that blew them. Consciousness is a product of evolution and, as such, it has a role to play in our survival. What is that role?

    70. Quantum Field Theory A
    We will move on to a systematic discussion of the renormalization of a generic field theory and study the renormalization group associated to it.
    http://www.hep.fsu.edu/~reina/courses/2003-2004/phy5669/default.htm
    PHY 5669 : Quantum Field Theory B
    Lectures: 12:30-1:45 pm, Tuesday and Thursday, in UPL 110. Professor : Laura Reina, 510 Keen Building, 644-9282, e-mail: click here Text :
      Michael E. Peskin and Daniel V. Schroeder, An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory , Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
      (On-line corrections
    Other suggested reference books:
      C.Itzykson and J.-B. Zuber, Quantum Field Theory , McGraw-Hill International Editions [IZ] S. Weinberg, The Quantum Field Theory of Fields , Vol. I and II, Cambridge University Press [SW] S. Pokorski, Quantum Field Theories (2nd Ed.), Cambridge University Press [SP] L.D. Faddeev and A.A. Slavnov, Gauge Fields: An introduction to quantum field theory , Addison-Wesley Publ. [FS] P. Ramond, Field Theory , Perseus Publishing [PR] L.H. Ryder, Quantum Field Theory , Cambridge University Press [Ry]
    For a non technical and very up to date, intriguing, and broad introduction to quantum field theory:
      A. Zee, Quantum Field Theory in a nutshell , Princeton University Press [Zee]
    For a very interesting historical introduction:
      S.S. Schweber

    71. Electromagnetic Field Theory Group At IFH
    It is our pleasure to welcome you to the Electromagnetic field theory Group at the Laboratory for Electromagnetic Fields and Microwave Electronics (IFH).
    http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/Field/index.html
    It is our pleasure to welcome you to the Electromagnetic Field Theory Group at the Laboratory for Electromagnetic Fields and Microwave Electronics ( IFH Field Theory or Electromagnetics is a discipline that describes the behavior of electric and magnetic fields and their sources in a specific environment. This environment can be either a guiding or a radiating structure in a homogeneous or inhomogeneous medium with or without losses. Maxwell's equations form the basis of electromagnetics. The complexity of today's relevant problems in electromagnetics are such that in most cases analytical solutions to Maxwell's equations are not possible. Thus a continuous physical reality, the electromagnetic field, is represented by a discretized, sampled numerical approximation to replicate the behavior of the actual problem with appropriate accuracy and resolution. Therefore the discipline of field theory or electromagnetics is nowadays often referred to as computational electromagnetics.

    72. Lattice Gauge Theory Group At UAM
    Welcome to the home page of the Lattice field theory Group at Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (U.A.M.). We are part of the Theoretical High Energy Physics
    http://lattice.ft.uam.es/

    [ Home ]
    [ Members ] [ IFT Cluster ] [ Useful Links ] ... [ Member Services ] Information Home Members Research IFT Cluster Services Useful Links Member Services Contact
    The UAM Lattice Field Theory Group
    Welcome to the home page of the Lattice Field Theory Group at Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (U.A.M.). We are part of the Theoretical High Energy Physics Group at Departamento de Fisica Teorica C-XI. Some of us are also members of the Instituto de Fisica Teorica CSIC/UAM. Here you can find information about the members of the group, their scientific activities and the general computing resources available. The latter consists mainly of our newly born IFT Cluster . Deliver July 2006, final hardware installation Sept. 2006, queue system Feb. 2007. Next there are information about our investigation project support through MEC:
    Computational methods applied to particle physics and cosmology
    Here, there is a list of the recent group's publications. Inside each item has been included a spires' link.
    Recent Publications of the Group
    You can also find some useful links for the High Energy Physics and Lattice Field Theory community.

    73. 14th Irish Quantum Field Theory Meeting - Official Homepage
    12th Irish Quantum field theory Meetingofficial homepage.
    http://www.maths.tcd.ie/~string/iftm/

    IFTM HOME
    Basic Information Pre-conference:
    Registration and Accommodation
    Conference:
    Schedule

    Speakers

    List of participants

    Directions:
    Dublin Airport

    To Trinity College

    Public transport
    Others:
    Organization
    Useful links: Trinity College Dublin HamiltonMathematics Institute, TCD City of Dublin Contact Information Prepared and maintained by Calin Lazaroiu 12th Irish Quantum Field Theory Meeting May 20-21 2005, Trinity College, Dublin The conference will be held in the Joly Lecture Theatre, Hamilton Building at Trinity College Dublin on Friday, May 20 and Saturday, May 21, 2005.

    74. Quantum Field Theory
    The framework in which quantum mechanics and special relativity are successfully reconciled is called quantum field theory. It is based on three basic
    http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/jhs/strings/str114.html
    Quantum Field Theory
    The next contradiction that physicists faced was between quantum mechanics (which had been developed over the thirty years following Planck's seminal insight) and the special theory of relativity. Most of the work in quantum mechanics was in the Galilean (or non-relativistic) approximation.
    To be sure, Dirac had developed a relativistic wave equation for the electron, which was an important advance, but there was still a basic contradiction that needed to be resolved. The new feature that is required in a successful union of quantum mechanics and special relativity is the possibility of the creation and annihilation of quanta (or `particles'). The non-relativistic theory does not have this feature.
    The framework in which quantum mechanics and special relativity are successfully reconciled is called quantum field theory. It is based on three basic principles: two of them, of course, are quantum mechanics and special relativity. The third one, which I wish to emphasize, is the postulate that elementary particles are point-like objects of zero intrinsic size. In practice, they are smeared over a region of space due to quantum effects, but their descripton in the basic equations is as mathematical points.
    Now the general principles on which quantum field theory are based actually allow for many different consistent theories to be constructed. (The consistency has not been established with mathematical rigour, but this is not a concern for most physicists.)

    75. Effective Field Theory Of Inflation | Musings
    One of the grand organizing principles of my corner of Physics is that of effective field theory. Rather than analysing a whole bunch of different models,
    http://golem.ph.utexas.edu/~distler/blog/archives/001560.html
    @import url("/~distler/blog/styles-site.css");
    Musings
    Thoughts on Science, Computing, and Life on Earth.
    Skip to the Main Content
    Enough, already! Skip to the content. Note: These pages make extensive use of the latest XHTML and CSS Standards only supported in Mozilla. My best suggestion (and you will thank me when surfing an ever-increasing number of sites on the web which have been crafted to use the new standards) is to upgrade to the latest version of your browser. If that's not possible, consider moving to the Standards-compliant and open-source Mozilla browser. Main
    January 4, 2008
    Effective Field Theory of Inflation
    In a beautiful recent paper, Cheung et al give an effective field theory analysis of generic models of single-field inflation. FRW If we expand about a homogeneous solution, t , the fluctuations, x t , about this solution, transform inhomogeneously under temporal diffeomorphisms, t t x t t , and all of the fluctuations are in the metric. In the spirit of effective field theory, we should, in unitary gauge, write down a Lagrangian (for the fluctuations of the metric) containing all terms invariant under spatial, but not necessarily temporal diffeomorphisms. That is, we should allow terms involving
    • g variations of the extrinsic curvature K K a H h of the constant- slices variations of the Riemann tensor R R H k h h H H a h perm covariant derivatives

    76. SSRN-The Field Theory: Martial Law, The Suspension Power, And The Insurrection A
    SSRNThe field theory Martial Law, the Suspension Power, and the Insurrection Act by Stephen Vladeck.
    http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=963994
    Paper Stats:
    Abstract Views: 638
    Downloads: 166
    Download Rank: 25565 The Field Theory: Martial Law, the Suspension Power, and the Insurrection Act
    STEPHEN I. VLADECK

    American University Washington College of Law
    Temple Law Review, Vol. 80, 2007

    American University, WCL Research Paper No. 08-01

    Abstract:
    In Ex parte Merryman, Chief Justice Taney famously rejected President Lincoln's power to unilaterally suspend the writ of habeas corpus in and around Baltimore at the outset of the U.S. Civil War. According to Taney, only Congress can provide for suspension of the writ, and Congress had not so provided. Just one year later, though, the Vermont federal circuit court held, in Ex parte Field, that the suspension of habeas corpus is necessarily coincident to the imposition of martial law. Because President Lincoln had the statutory authority to impose martial law by virtue of the so-called Militia Acts, Field concluded, Congress had effectively, if not explicitly, given sanction to Lincoln's suspension of habeas in those areas where martial law was validly in force.
    Keywords: Merryman, Taney, Lincoln, martial law, martial rule, habeas corpus, civil war, emergencies, Andrew Jackson, Dorr

    77. Quantum Whirls
    The new theory contains only radiation. Particles consist of monorays in form of spiral-field-cords; which bent extremely itself; comes together to a
    http://www.quantum-universe.com/
    Germany: Frankfurt Book Fair 10. - 14. October. 2007 A K V Working Group of smaller Publishing Houses
    in the Börsenverein des Deutschen Buchhandels, Hall 3.1 / H 125 Universe of Quantum Whirls
    in the Final Theory Spiral Field Model

    Basic Ideas for a Compatible Physics and a Consistent Nature Science A mainstream of the international physicist community wants to unveil the basic problems at higher and higher energies in impressive plants; - called ironic: Cognition Machines which mutual outbid themselves in their technical lot of work and financial expenditure. The protagonists start with an antiquated notion over particles; which stores experimental experiences in a standard ; but leaving open otherwise, however; as those particles can form at all and dissolve completely again; and why the particles with increasing energy content reduce their need on topologic space.
    If the simplest element and the unit of physics shall be found in powerful technological enclosures, then this is a fatal error way. Sought-after giant elementary particles are with absolute safety: no simple things , but they have in opposite biggest complexity. Provided that they could be generated: then they place masses of effect quanta in an unstable or stable structure together.

    78. A Novel Theory Of The Terrestrial Magnetic Field And Its Anomalies
    A new theory of the source of the Earth s magnetic field which also provides an explanation of its variations in intensity and direction over planetary
    http://www.users.bigpond.com/ernestmcfarlane/geomagnetism.html
    Origin of the Earth's Magnetic Field
    The theory of terrestrial magnetism has been the subject of considerable effort over the last three decades, but yet has not resulted in an obviously satisfactory result. Highly sophisticated physical and mathematical approaches have been adopted, yet one gets the impression that a good deal of forcing is necessary to even begin to approach a unified and comprehensive explanation of all the important observations. It is my conviction that all theories should have an underlying simplicity which grips the imagination without the prior need for complicated mathematical manipulation. Certainly mathematics is often necessary for developing the theory in order to make predictions to test it and to attempt to falsify it, particularly in the case of the physical sciences, yet even there the basic ideas alone, generally have a convincing ring of truth about them. I do not get this feeling about the prevailing theories, in particular the Dynamo Theory popular nowadays. There are a number of peculiar observations of Earth's magnetism which have to date eluded theoretical explanation. In this article I will propose a novel unifying explanation which will include all the apparently odd aspects of the Earth's magnetic field, but first let me review some of these features.

    79. Quantum Theory Timeline
    Of particular interest was the growing field of quantum mechanics, Hideki Yukawa combines relativity and quantum theory to describe nuclear interactions
    http://particleadventure.org/other/history/quantumt.html
    Quantum Theory timeline
    At the start of the twentieth century, scientists believed that they understood the most fundamental principles of nature. Atoms were solid building blocks of nature; people trusted Newtonian laws of motion; most of the problems of physics seemed to be solved. However, starting with Einstein's theory of relativity which replaced Newtonian mechanics, scientists gradually realized that their knowledge was far from complete. Of particular interest was the growing field of quantum mechanics, which completely altered the fundamental precepts of physics.
    Particles discovered 1898 - 1964:
    Max Planck suggests that radiation is quantized (it comes in discrete amounts.) Albert Einstein , one of the few scientists to take Planck's ideas seriously, proposes a quantum of light (the photon) which behaves like a particle. Einstein's other theories explained the equivalence of mass and energy, the particle-wave duality of photons, the equivalence principle, and special relativity. Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden , under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford , scatter alpha particles off a gold foil and observe large angles of scattering, suggesting that atoms have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.

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