21. YaleGlobal Online Magazine The renowned mathematicians among the Ancient Greeks, who learned the and would be developed in the Middle East by arabian mathematicians who would base http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp

22. Bygone Beliefs Nor was he, of course, by any means the first mathematicianthere was a longline of Greek and arabian mathematicians behind him, men whose knowledge of http://www.sacred-texts.com/etc/bb/bb12.htm

Sacred Texts Misc Texts Index Previous ... Next ROGER BACON: AN APPRECIATION IT has been said that "a prophet is not without honour, save in his own country." Thereto might be added, "and in his own time"; for, whilst there is continuity in time, there is also evolution, and England of to-day, for instance, is not the same country as England of the Middle Ages. In his own day ROGER BACON was accounted a magician, whose heretical views called for suppression by the Church. And for many a long day afterwards was he mainly remembered as a co-worker in the black art with Friar BUNGAY, who together with him constructed, by the aid of the devil and diabolical rites, a brazen head which should possess the power of speechthe experiment only failing through the negligence of an assistant..[1] Such was ROGER BACON in the memory of the later Middle Ages and many succeeding years; he was the typical alchemist, [1]The story, of course, is entirely fictitious. For further particulars see Sir J. E. SANDYS' essay on "Roger Bacon in English Literature," in Roger Bacon Essays (1914)

23. FitzGerald George FitzGerald was a brilliant mathematical physicist who today is known by most to the Greek and arabian mathematicians who invented our scale of http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/FitzGerald.html

George Francis FitzGerald Born: 3 Aug 1851 in Kill-o'-the Grange, Monkstown, Co. Dublin, Ireland Died: 21 Feb 1901 in Dublin, Ireland Click the picture above to see two larger pictures Show birthplace location Previous (Chronologically) Next Biographies Index Previous (Alphabetically) Next Main index Version for printing George FitzGerald was a brilliant mathematical physicist who today is known by most scientists as one of the proposers of the FitzGerald- Lorentz contraction in the theory of relativity. However, this suggestion by FitzGerald, as we shall see below, was not in the area in which he undertook most of his research, and he would certainly not have rated this his greatest contribution. George FitzGerald's parents were William FitzGerald and Anne Frances Stoney. His father William was a minister in the Irish Protestant Church and rector of St Ann's Dublin at the time of George's birth. William, although having no scientific interests himself, was an intellectual who went on to become Bishop of Cork and later Bishop of Killaloe. It seems that George's later interest in metaphysics came from his father's side of the family. George's mother was the daughter of George Stoney from Birr in King's County and she was also from an intellectual family. George Johnstone Stoney, who was Anne's brother, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London and George FitzGerald's liking for mathematics and physics seems to have come mainly from his mother's side of the family.

24. FitzGerald to the Greek and arabian mathematicians who invented our scale of numerationand algebra, to Galileo and Newton who founded dynamics, to Newton and http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/FitzGerald.html

George Francis FitzGerald Born: 3 Aug 1851 in Kill-o'-the Grange, Monkstown, Co. Dublin, Ireland Died: 21 Feb 1901 in Dublin, Ireland Click the picture above to see two larger pictures Show birthplace location Previous (Chronologically) Next Biographies Index Previous (Alphabetically) Next Main index Version for printing George FitzGerald was a brilliant mathematical physicist who today is known by most scientists as one of the proposers of the FitzGerald- Lorentz contraction in the theory of relativity. However, this suggestion by FitzGerald, as we shall see below, was not in the area in which he undertook most of his research, and he would certainly not have rated this his greatest contribution. George FitzGerald's parents were William FitzGerald and Anne Frances Stoney. His father William was a minister in the Irish Protestant Church and rector of St Ann's Dublin at the time of George's birth. William, although having no scientific interests himself, was an intellectual who went on to become Bishop of Cork and later Bishop of Killaloe. It seems that George's later interest in metaphysics came from his father's side of the family. George's mother was the daughter of George Stoney from Birr in King's County and she was also from an intellectual family. George Johnstone Stoney, who was Anne's brother, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London and George FitzGerald's liking for mathematics and physics seems to have come mainly from his mother's side of the family.

25. Our Non-Western Roots Of Science The most famous arabian mathematicians were AlKhwarazani (the origin ofword algorithm , which meant arithmetics) in the 9th century and Omar Khajjam in http://www.cs.joensuu.fi/~whamalai/skc/prehistory.html

Our non-Western roots of science We shall consider the early development of science, and especially mathematics, from the Stone Age to the Renaissance, when the golden age of our Western science begun. The emphasis is in the influence of other cultures on our scientific tradition. Beginning of science We know the difficulties of telling scientific truth about history, and this problem is even more crucial when describing and explaining develeopment in prehistoric times. Thus, I don't argue that the following story is truth, but just my interpretation based on general beliefs and opinions, how the human thinking and science have developed. When people (especially our ancestors, Homo sapiens; we don't know if the Neanderthal people could speak) learnt to speak ( faculty of speech ), they could transfer their knowledge and experiences to their children, and the human knowledge begun to accumulate. The knowledge was not strictly separated from beliefs, but people still wanted to give explanations for all phenomena they experienced and thought. Certainly some pieces of that "knowledge" (our common sense knowledge) would still be considered as knowledge, but more difficult things like beginning of world, origins of people and all anmals, life and death were explained by stories. They were not accepted scientific theories, but more like hypotheses, which mixed fact and fiction. Development of agriculture have usually been considered as beginning of sivilization (society and culture) with permanent settlement. It is believed that use of numbers developed already before that, with cattle-farming (about 6000 B.C. or earlier), for the purposes of counting the animals. However, the

26. Triangle To Square: A Hinged Dissection reaching back to arabian mathematicians a millennium ago and Greek As mathematical puzzles they enjoyed great popularity a century ago, in newspaper http://math.nmsu.edu/breakingaway/Lessons/T2S/Triangle2Square.htm

Triangle to square: A hinged dissection Background: Greg Frederickson's book , was published in 2002 by Cambridge University Press. We thank him for this dissection, originally credited to Dudeney in 1907. We have adapted it for use with children. From his website, http://www.cs.purdue.edu/homes/gnf/book2.html "A geometric dissection is a cutting of a geometric figure into pieces that we can rearrange to form another figure. As visual demonstrations of relationships such as the Pythagorean theorem, dissections have had a surprisingly rich history, reaching back to Arabian mathematicians a millennium ago and Greek mathematicians more than two millennia ago. As mathematical puzzles they enjoyed great popularity a century ago, in newspaper and magazine columns written by the American Sam Loyd and the Englishman Henry Ernest Dudeney. Loyd and Dudeney set as a goal the minimization of the number of pieces. Their puzzles charmed and challenged readers, especially when Dudeney introduced an intriguing variation in his 1907 book The Canterbury Puzzles . After presenting the remarkable 4-piece solution for the dissection of an equilateral triangle to a square, Dudeney wrote: 'I add an illustration showing the puzzle in a rather curious practical form, as it was made in polished mahogany with brass hinges for use by certain audiences. It will be seen that the four pieces form a sort of chain, and that when they are closed up in one direction they form a triangle, and when closed in the other direction they form a square.”

27. Events Undergraduate student Ali Hussain talking about arabian mathematicians and theorigins of Algebra. Dr. Ovidiu Calin talking about the 5dollar coin problem http://www.math.emich.edu/~newsletter/IntWeek.htm

28. Technical Arts Related To Alchemy In Old Egypt arabian mathematicians, physicians, alchemists, were held in high esteem asscientific experts. Arabian translations, elaborations and commentaries from http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam07.html

Technical Arts Related To Alchemy in Old Egypt These pages are edited by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead Professor of Chemistry at Faculty of Science-University of Cairo Giza-Egypt and director of Science Heritage Center E-mail: ead@frcu.eun.eg Web site: http://www.frcu.eun.eg/www/universities/html/shc/index.htm Back to Islamic Alchemy Back to reference library Alexandria-Egypt and Early Alchemists Introduction 1-When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 33 B.C. and his general Ptolemy became King of Egypt, the Greek city of Alexandria was founded, and soon became not only the most important city of Egypt, but through the foundation of schools and the accumulation of libraries became the acknowledged center of the intellectual world. 2-The collection of manuscripts is estimated at from 400,00 to 500,000 works. Scholars from all parts of the then civilized world thronged there to take advantage of its books and its teachers. The culture which developed was a blending of Greek, Egyptian, Chaldean, Hebrew and Persian influences. Greek philosophy, Egyptian arts, Chaldean and

29. Ancient Egyptian Alchemy And Science found its way to Europe, and arabian mathematicians, physicians, Arabian translations, elaborations and commentaries from ancient Greek and http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptscience.html

Ancient Egyptian Alchemy and Science The ancient Egyptians had many advanced scientific technologies, with much being found in picture form and in three-dimensional models throughout Egypt. Themes reflecting scientific knowledge and achievement can be found throughout the world in various ancient civilizations. These teachings seemed to center on electromagnetic energies. Scenes depict scientists of that timeline able to work in fields of alchemy, biology, chemistry, dentistry, anesthesiology, air flight , and the electromagnetic energies of the Great Pyramid among other sacred sites - how that link together and to the sacred geometry that forms our universe. Much of the interpretation is left to those in our timeline to decipher. Rare squared form of tet, at left. The heavy animal may be a ancient symbol for heavy electrons; the squaring may be an ancient way of referring to water. The tet might employ magneto hydrodynamic principles like ancient Egyptian and modern transportation technology, but it may employ it in obtaining energy from certain materials as well. The study of science and medicine were closely linked to religion as seen in many of the ancient rituals. The "pouring" and "anointing" we see in so many Egyptian works is the application of electromagnetic forces and not the application of actual fluids. Much of this was linked with 'magic' of some sort - as many unexplained things did occur. These were often considered miracles.

30. Mahabharat: Proof From The Bhagavat Puraan arabian mathematicians and astronomers had, as a well established fact of history,acquired most of their knowledge of algebra, arithmatic and astronomy http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/ancient/mahabharat/mahab_sarasvat.html

Mahabharat: An Astronomical Proof from the Bhagavat Puraan By Dr. Satya Prakash Saraswat Reproduced without permission. Fortunately, many works of the Vedic and Puranic tradition contain a sufficient number of clues in the form of astronomical observations which can be used to determine the approximate date of Mahabharata and thus establish the historical authenticity of the events described in this great epic. Notable among these works are the Parashar Sanghita, the Bhagvat Puran, Shakalya Sanghita, and the Mahabharat itself. Aryabhatta, one of the greatest mathematicians and astronomers of India in the fifth century AD, examined the astronomical evidence described in the Mahabharata in his great work known as the "Aryabhattiya". According to the positions of the planets recorded in the Mahabharata, its approximate date was calculated by Aryabhatta to be 3100 BC implying that the great war described in the Mahabharata was fought approximately 5000 years ago, as most Hindus have always believed. Exhibit 1 Approximate Positions of the Saptarshis (August 1990) Between the current location of the Saptarishis and the position mentioned in the Bhagvat, i.e., the Magha nakshatra, twenty three lunar mansions intervene, from Anuradha to Ashlesha, if the direction of movement opposite to the commonly accepted interpretation of the predictions made in the Bhagvat is followed (Exhibit 2). This direction of movement is equally likely since no records are available to establish the exact direction the saptarshis have historically followed.

31. Decimal Arithmetic - FAQ 2 arabian mathematicians made many contributions (including the concept of thedecimal fractions as an extension of the notation), and the written European http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decifaq2.html

Decimal Arithmetic FAQ Contents What are Normal numbers, Subnormal numbers, E max etc. What does ... mean? What are Normal numbers, Subnormal numbers, E max etc. These terms are derived or extrapolated from the IEEE 754 and 854 standards, and describe the various kinds of numbers that can be represented in a given computer encoding: The answers in Part 5 of the FAQ explain in more detail the meaning of some of the terms described here: Overflow threshold If a calculation results in a number whose magnitude is greater than or equal to the overflow threshold it is considered to have overflowed. Under IEEE 854 rules the result will then be either infinity or the largest representable number (depending on the rounding mode). Underflow threshold If a calculation results in a non-zero number whose magnitude would be less than the underflow threshold it is considered to have underflowed. The result will then sometimes be a subnormal number (see below), but it may be rounded down to zero or up to the threshold value. Normal numbers Any representable number which is greater than or equal to the underflow threshold and less than the overflow threshold is considered to be a normal number Largest normal number The magnitude of the largest normal number.

32. Overbalanced Wheels The idea was communicated by arabian mathematicians and seems to have beencirculated widely in Europe until 1200. Villard de Honnecourt described his wheel http://www.hp-gramatke.net/pmm_physics/english/page0400.htm

Overbalanced Wheels Translation ongoing! Overbalanced wheels or unbalanced wheels are the oldest known type of perpetual motion machines. The first wheel of this kind was described by the indian astronomer and mathematician Brahmgupta at 624AD. His idea is the starting point of a whole set of concepts. Note well, that Brahmagupta talks in his Brahmasphutasiddhanta about a wheel with hollow spokes, but there is not hint about asymmetry! It is strange to think that a mathematician of his legendary skills did not make a critical approach to this concept, as the symmetry does not prefer any direction of rotation. Symmetry always implies reversability of processes, but maybe science 1400 years ago did not make these distinct considerations. Later concepts introduced an asymmetric arrangement of the moveable masses, which remained a major aspect of unbalanced wheels until today. Bhaskara was the one who described a wheel with curved and tuy asymmetric spokes around 1150. The idea was communicated by arabian mathematicians and seems to have been circulated widely in Europe until 1200. Villard de Honnecourt described his wheel with seven mallets at the circumference around 1230 and his notes give hint that the idea was already widespread. Let's have a closer look at a typical overbalanced wheel.

33. Timeline: Eighth Century 750 arabian mathematicians begin using numbers that originated in India, are anadvance of Roman numerals and that Muslims will pass to Europeans. http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/time08.html

home 6th to 15th centuries Timeline: 8th Century Drawing from the Chinese and Confucianism, the Japanese have established new laws - the Taiho Code. The emperor is seen as having supreme moral authority, a benevolent ruler, with moral ministers and bureaucrats, to whose authority otherwise feuding local lords should submit for the sake of peace. And, accompanying this centralized authority, a national tax system is devised. Empress Wu has proclaimed a new dynasty of her own family line. She has lowered taxes for farmers, and agricultural production has risen. She has strengthened public works. But by 705 she is in her old age and has lost control at court. Officicals at court force her to reisgn in favor of a member of the Tang family - the return of the Tang Dynasty. In China, boiled war is safer to drink than untreated water, and tea becomes popular accompanied by the belief that tea has medicinal properties. Japan's emperor moves the capital from Osaka to the city of Nara in order to avoid the pollution of his predecessor's death.

34. Writing Project 35 Writing Project 35. Arabian Algebra. arabian mathematicians were the essentialdriving forces of mathematics during 800 and about 1400. http://webmail.fc.edu/~eprisner/MAT103/Pro35.html

MAT 103 Franklin College Fall 2003 Erich Prisner Writing Project 35: Arabian Algebra Arabian mathematicians were the essential driving forces of mathematics during 800 and about 1400. Give an overview of some of them and their achievments. Erich Prisner, August 2003

35. History Algebra (and concepts such as the zero) had been invented by arabian mathematiciansduring the flowering of Islamic culture. http://www.phy.duke.edu/~rgb/Class/intro_physics_1/intro_physics_1/node13.html

Review of Vectors Mathematics and Physics Mathematics and Physics History The development of physics and mathematics has gone hand in hand for much of recorded history. Indeed, the development of mathematics as a purely abstract course of study (with no connection whatsoever with the real world) is a relatively recent historical development. Although mathematics was systematized as an axiomatic (and hence abstract) system as long ago as Euclid, the motivation for most of plane geometry and early mathematics was utterly practical - to aid in mundane tasks such as laying out fields, architecture and navigation. These concrete pursuits and applications guided the intuitions that were eventually turned into ``mathematics". However, it wasn't until the time of Newton that the marriage between physics and mathematics got its fundamental kick in the pants and shifted into high gear. Geometry had existed by then for thousands of years. Algebra (and concepts such as the zero) had been invented by Arabian mathematicians during the flowering of Islamic culture. Following Galileo, observational astronomy had advanced to where a great deal was known about planetary motion from a geometric point of view (thanks to Kepler and his assistant, Tycho Brahe).

36. The Magic Of Nines This test was invented by arabian mathematicians in the 8th century, that makesthis relatively new compared to other mathematics (Eg ancient Greece Egypt http://home.c2i.net/greaker/comenius/prepare/9798/nine_2.htm

THE MAGIC OF NINES Written by Espen Hænes Kristiansen, Magnus Kristiansen and Øystein Myksvoll Lande Through the history of mathematics it has been claimed that the number nine has some mysterious properties. To Joe Public this may seem pretty absurd. Magical possibilities is something we link to David Copperfield, and not a number. There are probably several reasons why the number 9 has earned this reputation. Here we will deal with two of them. These are practical examples of what you can use the number 9 to. The examples we will work with is called "The test of nines" and "The table of nines". "THE TABLE OF NINES" First we will show you the table of nines (multiplication), which has this special look: When we look at this table we can see the construction of it is very simple. The last number in every number is the counting from 9-0. The next number goes from 0-9 and so on. The third number also goes from 0-9, but this time each number is used 10 times. Using this technique it is possible to find all the numbers in the table of nines without calculating them. This is what is called the "beautiful table of nines". But is this special for the number 9, what about other numbers? Here are some other tables: From these results it is possible to make different conclusions. The table of nines is special, and its table is built in a very simple way. But at the same time several other numbers makes special multiplication tables. The number nine is special, but can we call it magic? In our eyes, no.

37. SciFri 3.18.05: Lighting The Dark Ages--ancient Arab And Persian Scholars: UMNne To get an idea how pervasive the influence of Arab mathematicians was during The dry air and clear skies of the Middle East led arabian science to make http://www1.umn.edu/umnnews/Columns/SciFri/SciFri_3.18.05_Light_in_the_Dark_Ages

Return to: U of M Home One Stop Directories Search U of M Search UMN news What's Inside News Releases Columns More University News Sources Topics Academics Administrative Agriculture Athletics ... SciFri E-mail Print Comments SciFri 3.18.05 Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi, born in what is now Uzbekistan around A.D. 780, gave his name to the word "algorism," which became "arithmetic." Lighting the Dark Agesancient Arab and Persian scholars By Deane Morrison Published on March 18, 2005 The period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance has been called the Dark Ages because during that time, the light of learning lay dormant in Europe. But elsewhere, and perhaps nowhere more than in the Arab-Muslim world, it not only shone but brightened. The eve of a visit to campus by Ismail Serageldin is a good time to look at the contributions of Arabs and Persians to modern science and mathematics. Director of Egypt's Library of Alexandria (Bibliotheca Alexandrina), Serageldin, a proponent of agricultural and scientific progress in developing countries, heads an institute whose namesake, the original library at Alexandria, was a mecca for scholars in the ancient world. The Persian scientist Rhazes, also called Abu-Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya Ar-Razi, was born near what is now Tehran about A.D. 845 and was the first to distinguish clearly between smallpox and measles. He described his experiments so well that modern scientists can reproduce them.

38. Physics.org - Physics Evolution Text Version, Page 2 IbnSina (Avicenna), arabian physician and philosopher - Wrote 400 books Ibn Rushd brought many of the ideas from Arab mathematicians to Moorish Spain. http://www.physics.org/evolution/physics_evolution_text2.asp

Click here for animated version The Arabian and Chinese Age (Page 2 of 7) 100 AD to 1100 AD During what was known as The Dark Ages in Europe, the Roman Empire collapsed and disease, chivalry and superstition took over in Europe. However, Chinese thought continued to develop and Islamic culture (beginning c.600) flourished, nurturing the philosophy and mathematics of the Greeks. Hypatia, Philosopher and mathematician - Famous woman who was murdered (c. 360 AD to 415 AD) Egyptian philosopher and mathematician born in Egypt and worked in Alexandria. Hypatia was a thinker, who like Ptolemy, kept the tradition of Greek astronomy alive in Alexandria in the early centuries of the Christian era. She died violently - probably because, as a pagan, she was blamed for difficulties between the authorities and Christians. She was dragged from her classroom by monks who pelted her to death in the street. Hypatia was a well known author, inventor and letter writer. She wrote on geometry, algebra and astronomy and invented apparatus for distilling water, an instrument to measure the specific gravity of water, an astrolabe and a planisphere. She travelled widely and corresponded with people all over the Mediterranean. Letters addressed simply to 'The Philosopher' were delivered to her and today she is regarded as science's first famous woman.

39. The Physics Evolution IbnSina (Avicenna), arabian physician and philosopher (981 to 1037) Ibn Rushdbrought many of the ideas from Arab mathematicians to Moorish Spain. http://www.schoolscience.co.uk/content/4/physics/iop/biogs/biogs2.html

Physics Evolution Ancients Arabic and Chinese Renaissance Enlightenment ... Flash movie of timeline Page 2 of 7. The Arabian and Chinese age 100 AD to 1100 AD During what was known as The Dark Ages in Europe, the Roman Empire collapsed and disease, chivalry and superstition took over in Europe. However, Chinese thought continued to develop and Islamic culture (beginning c.600) flourished, nurturing the philosophy and mathematics of the Greeks. Hypatia , Philosopher and mathematician (c. 360 AD to 415 AD) Famous woman who was murdered. Egyptian philosopher and mathematician born in Egypt and worked in Alexandria. Hypatia was a thinker, who like Ptolemy, kept the tradition of Greek astronomy alive in Alexandria in the early centuries of the Christian era. She died violently - probably because, as a pagan, she was blamed for difficulties between the authorities and Christians. She was dragged from her classroom by monks who pelted her to death in the street. Hypatia was a well known author, inventor and letter writer. She wrote on geometry, algebra and astronomy and invented apparatus for distilling water, an instrument to measure the specific gravity of water, an astrolabe and a planisphere She travelled widely and corresponded with people all over the Mediterranean. Letters addressed simply to 'The Philosopher' were delivered to her and today she is regarded as science's first famous woman.

40. Iran Heritage Allow me to quote the following from the greatest of all arabian historians IbnKhaldun mathematicians, Omar Khayyam and alKhwarizimi, as Arabs. http://www.iran-heritage.org/takeaction/story3.htm

Interest Groups Take Action Abusers Interesting Pictures ... Home Re-Defining Persians as Arabs, March 2005 From: Manuvera@aol.com Sent: Monday, March 21, 2005 8:50 PM To: pgtf@persiangulfonline.org pgtf@iic.org Subject: Re-Defining Persians as Arabs Greetings, These statements (see your e-mail below) are typical of a plethora of books coming out of mainly British inspired and Arab-Sheik funded (from the Persian Gulf area) "history books" that are doing their utmost to revise the history of Islam, by essentially re-writing Persia out of history - actions consistent with Arabian nationalism. An upcoming paper of mine tabulates how the British arabists have done much to foster historical revisionism in the name of economic interests since 1920. British Arabists today are the strongest they have ever been in British history. Arabs accuse the Jews of having undue influence in the American government; this is truly ironic, as they do not seem to mind their own powerful Arab lobby in MI6 (British intelligence), commerce, media outlets like the BBC (BBC Arab service has the longest broadcasting hours of any foreign service in BBC) as well as British universties. Note the follwing shocking observation by Parsons:

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