1. Math Lair - Arabic Math History 750 AD arabian mathematicians adopt what we now call the Arabic number system.This system was imported from India. 820 AD Al Khowarizmi (his name is http://www.stormloader.com/ajy/arab.html

Arabic Math History View a note on these timelines When the Arabs conquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt, they inherited much of the Greco-Roman mathematical heritage and did a good job of preserving it. While the Arab civilisation declined in the second millennium of the Christian Era due to waves of Turkish and Mongol invaders (and fundamentalist Moroccan invaders in Spain), their enthusiasm for mathematics survived long enough to be passed to Christian Spain and from there to Italy and the rest of Europe. 750 A.D. Arabian mathematicians adopt what we now call the Arabic number system . This system was imported from India. 820 A.D. Al Khowarizmi (his name is where the English word "algorithm" (see glossary ) comes from) makes significant advances in algebra. 875 A.D. Thabit ibn Qurra writes his Book on the Determination of Amicable Numbers 1000 A.D. Alhazen states that light travels from visible objects to the eyes, not vice versa. This discovery is a significant step towards the theory of perspective. 1100 A.D.

2. Arabic Mathematics Explains contributions of arabian mathematicians by translating early Greek texts, developing early algebraic ideas, number theory and astronomical calculations. Includes information about key people during this time period. http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html

Arabic mathematics : forgotten brilliance? Alphabetical list of History Topics History Topics Index Version for printing Recent research paints a new picture of the debt that we owe to Arabic/Islamic mathematics. Certainly many of the ideas which were previously thought to have been brilliant new conceptions due to European mathematicians of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are now known to have been developed by Arabic/Islamic mathematicians around four centuries earlier. In many respects the mathematics studied today is far closer in style to that of the Arabic/Islamic contribution than to that of the Greeks. There is a widely held view that, after a brilliant period for mathematics when the Greeks laid the foundations for modern mathematics, there was a period of stagnation before the Europeans took over where the Greeks left off at the beginning of the sixteenth century. The common perception of the period of 1000 years or so between the ancient Greeks and the European Renaissance is that little happened in the world of mathematics except that some Arabic translations of Greek texts were made which preserved the Greek learning so that it was available to the Europeans at the beginning of the sixteenth century. That such views should be generally held is of no surprise. Many leading historians of mathematics have contributed to the perception by either omitting any mention of Arabic/Islamic mathematics in the historical development of the subject or with statements such as that made by Duhem in [3]:-

3. Decimal Arithmetic - FAQ 2 arabian mathematicians made many contributions (including the concept of the decimal fractions as an extension of the notation), and the http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

4. Mahabharat Proof From The Bhagavat Puraan arabian mathematicians and astronomers had, as a well established fact of history, acquired most of their knowledge of algebra, arithmatic and http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

5. CLAW-Cats In Space-Notable Humans Page One His work, Elements, however, was found, the arabian mathematicians having carefullypreserved it for the rest of us, as western man struggled through his http://www.geocities.com/catsinspace03/notablehumans.html

NOTABLE HUMANS NOTABLE HUMANS for JULY-AUGUST Image above: From left, STS-114 astronauts Steve Robinson, Jim Kelly, Andy Thomas, Wendy Lawrence, Charlie Camarda, Eileen Collins and Soichi Noguchi. The next Space Shuttle Commander, Eileen Collins, prepares to take an unprecedented flight far from the skies that overlook the lush river valley nestled below Harris Hill in upstate New York where she once only dreamed of soaring high. Although shy and timid, she pursued flight training and dismissed the premise that flying "was a guy thing" at the time. Collins began military pilot training for the Air Force in 1978, the same year that NASA opened the Shuttle program to women. The elite first class of women pilots who joined the ranks of NASA's Mission Specialist Astronauts inspired Collins to dream bigger. She knew then that her natural love of history, astronomy and geology coupled with her devotion to flight made America's space program the perfect fit for a would-be astronaut such as herself. Hard work over fate brought her to NASA. She earned a bachelor's degree in mathematics and economics from Syracuse University in 1978, a master's in operations research from Stanford University in 1986 and a master's in space systems management from Webster University in 1989.

6. FitzGerald telegraphy owes a great deal to Euclid and other pure geometers, to the Greek and arabian mathematicians who invented our scale of http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

7. Biographies, The Scientists A List. , however, was found, the arabian mathematicians having carefully preserved it for the rest of us, as western man struggled through his dark http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

8. Ancient Egyptian Science, Alchemy, Page 5 to Arab scholars, found its way to Europe, and arabian mathematicians,physicians, alchemists, were held in high esteem as scientific experts. http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-egyptian-science-alchemy-page-5.html

Ancient Egyptian Science, Alchemy. Ancient Egypt pages: How to Link to This Page To link to this page from your website, simply cut and paste the following code to your web page. It will appear on your page as: Ancient Egyptian Science, Alchemy, page 5 from www.lost-civilizations.net In 389 A.D. the Serapion of Alexandria was destroyed, and its library destroyed or scattered under an edict of Theodosius calling for the destruction of all paean temples within the Empire, an order executed with much severity and cruelty. In the same year, Zeno, Emperor of the East, closed the important school at Edessa and its Nestorian teachers were banished, finding refuse in Asia. The Museum of Alexandria, a real university, still maintained a precarious existence until 415 when in riots incited by the Christians, the last remnants of Alexandrian schools of philosophy and science were swept away and the last notable teacher and philosopher of that school, Hypatia (370 - 415) fell a victim to the violence of the mob. When the Muslim State ruled Asia Minor, the Syrian scholars were patronized by the Caliphs, were employed in influential positions as physicians, astronomers, mathematicians, engineers, etc., and the Syrian manuscripts of Greek and Alexandrian authors were translated into Arabian. The early Muslim culture was more hospitable to these ancient sciences and philosophies than the early Christian, and thus Arabians became in medieval times the best trained scholars in mathematics astronomy, medicine and chemistry.

9. Ancient Egyptian Alchemy And Science scholars and by them transmitted to Arab scholars, found its way to Europe, and arabian mathematicians, physicians, alchemists, were held in http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

10. Science, Civilization And Society There is plenty of evidence that the arabian mathematicians used the system The Arabian scholars adopted the Indian number system and mathematical http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/science society/lectures/lecture6.html

11. Technical Arts Related To Alchemy In Old Egypt its way to Europe, and arabian mathematicians, physicians, alchemists, were held in high esteem as scientific experts. Arabian translations http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

12. Science, Civilization And Society arabian mathematicians combined Greek geometry with Indian arithmetic and developedadvanced algebra. Arabian physicians combined GreekRoman and Indian http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/science society/lectures/lecture16.html

13. The Magic Of Nines This test was invented by arabian mathematicians in the 8th century, that makes this relatively new compared to other mathematics (E.g. ancient http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

14. YaleGlobal Online Magazine Zero reached Baghdad by 773 AD and would be developed in the Middle East by arabian mathematicians who would base their numbers on the Indian http://tmsyn.wc.ask.com/r?t=an&s=hb&uid=24312681243126812&sid=343126

15. Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland I do know that telegraphy owes a great deal to Euclid and other pure geometers,to the Greek and arabian mathematicians who invented our scale of http://www.tcd.ie/Physics/History/Fitzgerald/GFFG-JMDC/science.php

School of Physics Tel:+353 1 6081675 Fax:+353 1 6711759 e-mail: physics@tcd.ie Home News Introduction ... Local George Francis FitzGerald Millenium Discourse by J. M. D. Coey Scientific Background and Achievements To gain some impression of the intellectual and social environment in which FitzGerald was working in the last quarter of the 19th century, and to gauge his achievement, we must understand that this was the time of the electromagnetic revolution when human life was being irrevocably transformed by the ability to deliver energy and transfer information at the flick of a switch. The tyranny of dawn and dusk, barely mitigated by 2 watt candles and gaslight was shattered by Edison's incandescent bulbs. Telegraph cables spanned continents and crossed the ocean floors conveying intercontinental chatter for a shilling a word at the speed of light . Electric tramways were introduced from the Giant's Causeway to the streets of Belfast and Dublin. Industry used electric furnaces, electric motors and electrolytic plating vats. X-rays, demonstrated at church fairs, were making their way into hospitals for medical diagnosis. In FitzGerald's memorable words, "We are harnessing the all-prevading ether to the chariot of human progress and using the thunderbolt of Jove to advance the material progress of mankind."

16. Pascal Triangle (2) was well known by the arabian mathematicians long before Newton. wrote the famous mathematician J. Bernully, just now we have shown that it http://www.goldenmuseum.com/0901Triangle_engl.html

Pascal Triangle In our daily life we use widely the mathematics branch called combinatorial analysis . This one studies so-called finite sets . The set consisting of n elements is called n -element one. However we can chose k elements from n -element set. Each k -element part of the n -element set is called combination from given n elements by k . One of the problems of combinatorial analysis is to find a number of combinations of n elements by k . Usually this number is marked as Let us calculate Let us begin from . But what means the 0-element set? It means that the set has not elements. This set is called an "empty" set. It is clear that there exists only one combination of n elements by 0, that is Let us consider a set consisting of 3 elements: a pencil, a pen and a lasting. Let us calculate for this case. It is clear that Let us calculate . It is clear there exist only3 1-element parts for this case, that is For the case k = 2 also there exist only 3 2-element parts, that is At least for the case k = 3 there exists only 1 3-element part, that is But how match is a number of all possible parts of n -element set. For our example we have:

17. Euclid - Books I-IX But the third form of the Arabian Euclid actually accessible to us is the edition one of the greatest arabian mathematicians, wrote a commentary on the http://www.headmap.org/unlearn/euclid/before/arabia.htm

@import url(../../../ul-css/3-col-nn4-new-main.css); the teS Euclids elements BOOKS I-IX translated by T.L. Heath BACKGROUND euclid and the traditions about him. euclid's other works. greek commentators on the elements ... modern algebraic interpretations [see also: equations - Diophantus; conics - Appolonius] HEADMAP home unlearning EUCLID BOOK I BOOK II BOOK III BOOK IV ... BOOK IX OVERVIEW book 1, triangles book 2, quadratics books 3 and 4, circles book 5, theory of proportion book 6, geometry and the theory of proportion books 7, 8 and 9 ,number theory GEOMETRICAL ALGEBRA book II identities gemetrical solution of quadratics application of areas transformation of areas ... Book V notes Book VII notes Book VIII notes Book IX notes [p. 75] CHAPTER VII. EUCLID IN ARABIA. We are told by [Hnull]ājī Khalfa that the Caliph al-Mansūr (754-775) sent a mission to the Byzantine Emperor as the result of which he obtained from him a copy of Euclid among other Greek books, and again that the Caliph al-Ma'mūn (813-833) obtained manuscripts of Euclid, among others, from the Byzantines. The version of the Elements by al-[Hnull]ajjāj b. Yūsuf b. Matar is, if not the very first, at least one of the first books translated from the Greek into Arabic

18. Bygone Beliefs - XI Nor was he, of course, by any means the first mathematician there was a longline of Greek and arabian mathematicians behind him, men whose knowledge of http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/phil/psychology/BygoneBeliefs/chap1

Bygone Beliefs by H. Stanley Redgrove Terms Contents Dedication Preface ... XII XI Roger Bacon: an Appreciation T has been said that "a prophet is not without honour, save in his own country." Thereto might be added, "and in his own time"; for, whilst there is continuity in time, there is also evolution, and England of to-day, for instance, is not the same country as England of the Middle Ages. In his own day ROGER BACON was accounted a magician, whose heretical views called for suppression by the Church. And for many a long day afterwards was he mainly remembered as a co-worker in the black art with Friar BUNGAY, who together with him constructed, by the aid of the devil and diabolical rites, a brazen head which should possess the power of speechthe experiment only failing through the negligence of an assistant.[1] Such was ROGER BACON in the memory of the later Middle Ages and many succeeding years; he was the typical alchemist, where that term carries with it the depth of disrepute, though indeed alchemy was for him but one, and that not the greatest, of many interests. [1] The story, of course, is entirely fictitious. For further particulars see Sir J. E. SANDYS' essay on "Roger Bacon in English Literature," in

19. Ivars Peterson's MathTrek - Chemical Dissections In the 10th century, arabian mathematicians described several dissections intheir commentaries on Euclid s Elements. The 18thcentury Chinese scholar Tai http://www.maa.org/mathland/mathtrek_01_27_03.html

Search MAA Online MAA Home Ivars Peterson's MathTrek January 27, 2003 Chemical Dissections In recreational mathematics, a geometric dissection involves cutting a geometric figure into pieces that you can reassemble into another figure. For example, it's possible to slice a square into four angular pieces that can be rearranged into an equilateral triangle. The same four pieces can be assembled into a square or an equilateral triangle. Such puzzles have been around for thousands of years. The problem of dissecting two equal squares to form one larger square using four pieces dates back to at least the time of the Greek philosopher Plato (427 BC BC ). In the 10th century, Arabian mathematicians described several dissections in their commentaries on Euclid's Elements Dissections can get quite elaborate: A seven-pointed star becomes two heptagons; a dodecagon turns into three identical squares; and so on. You can also add constraints. For example, the pieces can be attached to one another by hinges. In the square-triangle dissection, the hinged pieces form a sort of chain. When closed in one direction, the pieces settle snugly into a square; when closed in the other direction, they fold into a triangle. (For an animated version of this dissection, see http://www.lsus.edu/sc/math/rmabry/live3d/hinged-triangle-square.htm

20. Biographies, The Scientists: A List. His work, Elements , however, was found, the arabian mathematicians havingcarefully preserved it for the rest of us, as western man struggled through his http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Science/Scients.htm

The Scientists: Click the letter and you will be brought to the beginning of the appropriate biography list. A B C D ... N O P Q R S ... W X Y Z (Click on letter to go to index.) -A- Ampère, André Marie Ampère, a teacher at Paris, has his permanent place in the history of science because it was his name that was given to the unit by which we measure electrical current. He had, of course, an interest in electricity; in addition, Ampère made similar investigations as did Avogadro into the nature of matter in its gaseous state. Alfven, Hannes Olof Gosta What I know of Alfven is that he was born in Sweden in 1908; and, while at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, in 1970, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics." I first bumped into Alfven when I picked up a small paperback book of his, which I very much enjoyed, Atom, Man, and the Universe, The Long Chain of Complications (San Francisco: Freeman, 1969). It was written simply and plainly for a general audience, and enables us "to view ourselves both as a part of the atomic microcosm and as part of the universe that dwarfs us." Archimedes (287-212 B.C.).

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